CLASS 10

Chapter 4 Agriculture Class 10 Geography Notes

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In this post, chapter 4 Agriculture Class 10 Geography Notes are given that is a part of a syllabus of Class 10 SST for session 2024-25.In Chapter 4 Agriculture of Class 10 Geography Ncert ,all topics are covered in descriptive manner so that students could attempt all questions in board exams of CBSE Class 10 SST.

CBSE Class 10 Geography chapter 4 Agriculture Notes

Introduction

India is an agrarian country where two-thirds of its population is engaged in agricultural activities. It is a primary activity, which produces most of the food that we consume. Besides food grains, it also produces raw material for various industries.

Types of Farming

Agriculture is an age-old economic activity in our country. Farming varies from subsistence to commercial type.

Cultivation methods have changed significantly depending upon

•the physical environment

•technological know-how

•Socio-cultural practices.

Primitive Subsistence Farming

•This farming is still practised in few parts of India.

•It is practised on small piece of land with the help of primitive tools like hoe, dao and digging sticks, and family/community labour.

• This farming depends on monsoon, natural fertility of the soil and suitability of other environmental conditions to the crops grown.

•It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.

Slash and Burn Agriculture

Farmers clear a patch of land and produce cereals and other food crops to sustain their family. When the soil fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land for cultivation.

Features

•land productivity is low as the farmer

•fertilisers or other modern inputs are not used.

• Shifting allows nature to replenish the fertility of the soil through natural processes.

It is known by different names in different regions/states of India and the world.

It is jhumming in north-eastern states like Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland;Pamlou in Manipur, Dipa in Bastar district of Chhattishgarh, and in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Intensive Subsistence Farming

•It is practised in areas of high population pressure on land.

•It is labour-intensive farming.

•high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for obtaining higher production.

•the ‘right of inheritance’ leading to the division of land among successive generations has rendered land-holding size uneconomical.

•the farmers continue to take maximum output from the limited land in the absence of alternative source of livelihood.

Commercial Farming

•use of higher doses of modern inputs,eg- high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides in order to obtain higher productivity.

•The degree of commercialisation of agriculture varies from one region to another. For example, rice is a commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab, but in Odisha, it is a subsistence crop.

Plantation Agriculture

In India, tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane,banana, etc., are important plantation crops.

•It is a type of commercial farming.

•In this farming, a single crop is grown on a large area.

•Tea in Assam and North Bengal and coffee in Karnataka.

•The plantation has an interface of agriculture and industry.

•It cover large tracts of land, using capital intensive inputs, with the help of migrant labourers.

•Since the production is mainly for market, a well-developed network of transport and communication connecting the plantation areas, processing industries and markets plays an important role in the development of plantations

Cropping Pattern

The physical features and plurality of cultures that decides the cropping pattern exist in different parts of the country and on that basis India has three cropping seasons

-Rabi, kharif and zaid.

Rabi crops

•These crops are sown in winter from October to December

•harvested in summer from April to June.

•Important rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard.

•These crops are grown in large parts of India, states from the north and north-western parts such as Punjab,Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh are important for the production of wheat and other rabi crops

.Kharif

•Sown with the onset of monsoon in different parts of the country

•harvested in September-October.

•Important kharif crops are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar),moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and Soyabean.

•In states like Assam,West Bengal and Odisha, three crops of paddy are grown in a year. These are Aus, Aman and Boro.

Zaid

•It is grown in between the rabi and the kharif seasons

•It is a short season during the summer months known as the Zaid season.

•Zaid crops are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and fodder crops.

Major Crops

A variety of food and non food crops are grown in different parts of the country depending upon

•the variations in soil

• climate

•cultivation practices.

Major crops grown in India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea,Coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and jute etc.

Rice

•It is the most staple diet of India

•It requires high temperature above 25°C and high humidity.

•Requires an annual rainfall above 100 cm.

•India is the second largest producer of rice in the world after China.

•grow well in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and the deltaic regions.

•It is grown even in areas of low rainfall with dense network of canal irrigation and tubewells like Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh.

Wheat

•Second most important cereal crop after rice and main food crop in the north and north-western part of India.

•This rabi crop requires a cool growing season and bright sunshine at the time of ripening.

• requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season.

•The Ganga-Satluj plains in the northwest and the black soil region of the Deccan are two main wheat-growing zones in India.

•Major wheat producing states are Punjab, Haryana , Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.

Millets

•Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important millets grown in India.

•these are known as coarse grains

• they have very high nutritional value.

Ragi

•Ragi is a crop of dry regions and grows well on red,black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils

•rich in iron, calcium, other micro nutrients and roughage.

•Major ragi producing states are: Karnataka,Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,Sikkim, Jharkhand and Arunachal Pradesh.

Read more: Water Resources Class 10 Geography Notes

Jowar

•third most important food crop with respect to area and production.

•It is a rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist areas which hardly needs irrigation.

•Major Jowar producing States are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

Bajra

•grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soil.

• Major Bajra producing states are Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana. Maize

•It is a kharif crop and used as food and fodder.• It requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil.

•In Bihar maize is grown in rabi season also.

•Use of modern inputs such as HYV seeds, fertilisers and irrigation lead to the increasing production of it.

•Major maize-producing states are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

Pulses:

•India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world.

• major source of protein in a vegetarian diet.

•Major pulses that are grown in India are tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and gram.

•Need less moisture and survive even in dry conditions.

•Being leguminous crops,all pulses except arhar help in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air.

•these are mostly grown in rotation with other crops.

•Major pulse producing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.

Sugarcane

•It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop.

• It grows well in hot and humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to 27° C and annual rainfall between 75cm and 100cm.

•It needs manual labour from sowing to harvesting.

• India is the second largest producer of sugarcane only after Brazil.

•main source of sugar, gur ,(jaggary), khandsari and molasses.

•The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar,Punjab and Haryana.

Oilseeds

•In 2018 India was the second largest producer of groundnut in the world after China.

•In rapeseed production India was third largest producer in the world after Canada and China in 2018.

•Different oil seeds grown in India covers approximately 12 per cent of the total cropped area of the country.

•Main oil-seeds produced in India are groundnut,mustard, coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean,castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and sunflower.

•Most of these are edible and used for cooking and som are also used as raw material in the production of soap, cosmetics and ointments.

•Groundnut is a kharif crop and accounts for about half of the major oilseeds produced in the country.

• Gujarat was the largest producer of groundnut followed by Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu in 2019–20.

• Linseed and mustard are rabi crops.

•Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and rabi crop in south India.

•Castor seed is grown both as rabi and kharif crop.

Tea

important beverage crop introduced by the British in India.

•grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates with deep and fertile well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic matter.

•Tea bushes require a warm and moist frost-free climate all through the year.

•It requires abundant, cheap and skilled labour.

•Tea is processed within the tea garden to restore its freshness.

•Major tea-producing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Coffee

•Indian coffee is known in the world for its good quality.

•The Arabica variety initially brought from Yemen is produced in India.

•its cultivation was introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and even today its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Horticulture Crops

•India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits.

•India was second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after China.

•Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal

• Oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya)

•bananas of Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.

•Lichi and Guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar• Pineapples of Meghalaya

•Grapes of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra

•Apples, pears, apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.

•Major crops produced are pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato.

Non-Food Crops

Rubber

•It is an equatorial crop, but under special conditions, it is also grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas.

•It requires moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm and temperature above 25°C.

•It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya.

Jute

•It is known as the golden fibre.

•It grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains where soils are renewed every year.

• Requires high temperature during the time of growth.

•West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha and Meghalaya are the major jute producing states.

• used in making gunny bags, mats, ropes,yarn, carpets and other artefacts.

•Due to its high cost, it is losing market to synthetic fibres and packing materials, particularly the nylon.

Fibre Crops

Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are the four major fibre crops grown in India.

•The first three are derived from the crops grown in the soil, the latter is obtained from cocoons of the silkworms fed on green leaves specially mulberry.

• Rearing of silk worms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture.

Cotton

•India is believed to be the original home of the cotton plant.

•In 2017, India was second largest producer of cotton after China.

• It grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan Plateau.

•It requires high temperature, light rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days and bright sun-shine for its growth.

•It is a kharif crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature.

•Major cotton-producing states are–Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.

Technological and Institutional Reforms Sustained uses of land without compatible techno-institutional changes have hindered the pace of agricultural development.

Agriculture which provides livelihood for more than 60 per cent of its population, needs some serious technical and institutional reforms.

•collectivisation, consolidation of holdings, cooperation and abolition of zamindari, and land reforms etc. were given priority to bring about institutional reforms in the country after Independence.

•Introducing agricultural reforms to improve indian agriculture in the 1960s and 1970s like Green Revolution based on the use of package technology and the White Revolution (Operation Flood) were some of the strategies initiated to improve the Indian agriculture.

In the 1980s and 1990s, a comprehensive land development programme was initiated, which included both institutional and technical reforms.

•Provision for crop insurance against drought, flood, cyclone, fire and disease.

•Establishment of Grameen banks, cooperative societies and banks for providing loan facilities to the farmers at lower rates of interest were some important steps in this direction.

•Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident,insurance scheme (PAIS) are some other schemes introduced by the Government of India for the benefit of the farmers.

•Special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers were introduced on the radio and television.

•The government also announces minimum support price, remunerative and procurement prices for important crops to check the exploitation of farmers by speculators and middlemen.

Chapter 4 Globalisation And the Indian Economy Class 10 Economics Notes 2024-25|Class 10 Economics Notes

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In this post chapter 4 Globalisation And the Indian Economy Class 10 Economics Notes are explained as per the latest syllabus of class 10 Economics Chapter 4 which has covered a few topics like what is globalization and the factors that have enabled the Globalisation.Here notes of globalisation and the Indian Economy Class 10 Economics notes is comprehensively covered so that students would feel confident in his preparation for the board exams.

Globalisation and the Indian Economy Notes Class 10 Economics

What Is Globalisation?

Meaning of globalisation

Globalisation is the process of rapid integration or interconnection between countries.

•Most of the MNCs locate industries where their cost of production would be cheap and foreign investment and foreign trade have been increased rapidly in recent years by MNCs.

•A major proportion of foreign trade is controlled by MNCs as different activities related to production are done in different countries to maximize profits by reducing costs.

Eg: manufacturing plant of Ford Motors in India not only produces car for Indian market but also to exports to developing countries and export car components for its many factories around the world.

Advantages

•More and more goods and services, investment and technology are moving between countries.

•Countries can be connected in another way through the movement of people between countries in search of better income, better jobs or better education.

•People would have wide range of choices of goods and services.

•Competition help consumers to get quality products at reasonable price.

•Result of greater foreign trade and greater foreign investment lead to greater integration of production and markets across countries.

Factors that have enabled globalization

Technology

•Improvement in technology has made delivery of goods faster across long distances at lower costs.

•Technology in areas of telecommunications, computer and internet are used to connect one another around the World and from remote areas.

•Internet allows us to send instant electronic mail and talk at negligible costs across the world.

•Information and communication technology (IT) has helped in spreading out production of services across countries.

Money and Credit Class 10 Notes

Trade barriers

When tax is levied on imports of goods and services is called trade barrier.

It is called a barrier because some restriction has been imposed by government on exports and imports of goods and services.

Purpose

•Governments can use trade barriers to increase or decrease foreign trade and to decide what kinds of goods and how much of each, should come into the country.

•The Indian government, after independence, had put barriers to foreign trade and foreign investment to protect the producers within the country from foreign competition.

•Industries were just coming up in the 1950s and 1960s, and competition from imports at that stage would not have allowed these industries to come up.

Thus, India allowed imports of only essential items such as machinery, fertilisers, petroleum etc.

•all developed countries, during the early stages of development, have given protection to domestic producers through a variety of means.

Changes after 1991( Economic Reforms)

•The government decided that the time had come for Indian producers to compete with producers around the globe.

•Competition would improve the performance of producers within the country since they would have toimprove their quality.

•barriers on foreign trade and foreign investment were removed s that goods could be imported and exported easily.

•foreign companies could set up factories and offices.

Liberalisation

Removing barriers or restrictions set by the government on the export and import of goods and services across countries of the world is known as liberalisation.

Advantages

•With liberalisation of trade, businesses are allowed to make decisions freely about what they wish to import or export.

•The government imposes much less restrictions than before and is therefore said to be more liberal .

Class 10 Economics Globalization and the Indian Economy Notes

The Ball Poem Explanation Class 10 English|Class 10 English The Ball Poem Summary

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The Ball Poem explanation Class 10 English is explained stanza by stanza that will help students to understand the The Ball Poem in descriptive manner.The Ball poem Class 10 First Flight is very interesting and inspirational for the readers.

The Ball Poem Explanation Class 10 English Ncert

Introduction

The Ball Poem is written by John Berryman is an inspirational poem that informs us how should person deals when he come across any problem that shakes him completely and it becomes difficult for him to stand .In reality, we love so many things and if these leave us anytime we come in depression and starts losing our hope.

Stanza 1

What is the boy now, who has lost his ball,

What, what is he to do? I saw it go

Merrily bouncing, down the street, and then

Merrily over — there it is in the water!

Explanation– The poet talks about a boy who has a ball that is lost now as it slips down from his hand and in this condition what he has to do, it is a confusing and sad situation and he feels helpless . And, the poet looks after the ball is going down in an happily mood as it jumps up and down in the street where it fell down and leads towards the water and drop into it happily from where it can’t come.

Stanza 2

No use to say ‘O there are other balls’

An ultimate shaking grief fixes the boy

As he stands rigid, trembling, staring down

All his young days into the harbour where

His ball went. I would not intrude on him;

A dime, another ball, is worthless. Now

Explanation- When poet see that ball is no more with boy as it is dipped into the water and in this situation it doesn’t make any sense to go and ask boy ‘don’t worry’ and says you can purchase several balls like it because the bonding and attachment the boy had with ball can’t be brought back. The boys is looking how ball has left him alone and this separation is difficult to bear and due to it,he is silent,upset and his life is shaken completely when this thing happens in front of him. Similarly,in our life there are so many belongings to which person is deeply and emotionally attached. When these things leave us and go away from our life whether those are our parents,friends or any objects and articles,it is hard to control ourselves. It happens as we had spent a good time with them in our life .As boy see all these things while standing nearby water bodies where it has gone and can’t bring him back. It is very tough to enter and meet this boy without any permission and persuade him it doesn’t cost so much . Ten cent of money is the only amount that can give another ball but cost of anything doesn’t matter. Instead of it,the memories and feelings that person usually has ,it matters a lot in person’s life.

Stanza 3

He senses first responsibility

In a world of possessions. People will take

Balls, balls will be lost always, little boy.

And no one buys a ball back. Money is external.

Explanation-Now time has come to understand and realise how important and responsible person you are .if If you stop yourself after losing a single thing in this world where you have so many things and you love and care a lot but these will be taken from you by people or God,what would you do then. Likewise ,many things that people possess don’t remain with them forever,it is the reality of life .Similarly, loss of time , ,people, things ,break of trust and many more that have passed can’t be brought back by money. Money is material and it can’t purchase emotions feelings ,love ,respect and non material or material things to which you had attachment for a long period of time.

Stanza 4

He is learning, well behind his desperate eyes,

The epistemology of loss, how to stand up

Knowing what every man must one day know

And most know many days, how to stand up.

Explanation– In last, poet says that there is a need to learn to become bold, patient, brave and determined and don’t loose hope. The Knowledge of adjustment tells that when you loss something that is so important in your life so don’t worry,look forword and be determined . Every person has to learn how to stand and control himself in those situations as it is a part of our life.Many a times such situations will come when you will be hopeless and get depressed but instead of getting depressed and sad ,stand boldly and continue your journey to be a successful person.

The Ball Poem summary Class 10 First Flight in English summary

The poet discuss about a boy who has lost his ball when it fell down and reaches to the water bodies happily as it passes through the street after bouncing. The poet thinks whether it is right to interrupt or console boy by saying that other balls can be given to him but a loss of ball has filled him with grief and sorrow and standing near harbour in sadness for long as he was not expecting it would happen with him .Even,cost of lost ball is only ten cent U.S but it can’t calm or give relief him as memories are attached with ball of childhood. So ,poet wants that he should not be upset and loose his hope .Instead of it, boy has to learn his responsibilities how to deal in those difficult situations when anybody loses his precious or special things to which his memories are attached. In our life many a times people will hurt us emotionally and financially and if we get depressed or think only about that thing then it will affect our present as well as future. In everybody’s life such situations come across when he becomes upset and start losing hope so he has to stand boldly and confidently with full determination and belief in his/ her capabilities that nothing can distract or stop him to lead a prosperous and successful life. Nothing stops if anybody or anything that is loving go away from our life. It is the reality of life.

Chapter 3 The Making of a Global World Notes Class 10 History|Class 10 History Notes

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We have provided here the chapter 3 The Making of a Global World Notes Class 10 History according to the latest syllabus of Class 10 board exams. This post has covered all topics of class 10 history Chapter 3 the Making of a Global World for the session 2024-25.

Chapter 3 The Making of a Global World Notes Class 10 History

Pre modern World

Globalization refers to the system that interlinked people of different countries of the world through trade, migration of people in search of work and movement of capital etc .It had emerged fifty years ago.

•Since ancient times, travellers, traders, priests, and pilgrims have travelled vast distances for knowledge, opportunities, spiritual fulfilment, or to escape persecution.

•They carried goods, money, values, skills,ideas, invention and even germs and disease through globalization.

•As early as 3000 BCE, an active coastal trade linked the Indus Valley civilisations with present-day West Asia.

•Cowries (Hindi cowdi or seashells used as a form of currency) found their way to China and East Africa.

1.1 Silk route in the Global World

The Silk Routes are an excellent example of vibrant pre-modern trade and cultural links between distant parts of the world.

•Historians have identified several silk routes, both overland and by sea, connecting vast regions of Asia and linking Asia with Europe and northern Africa.

•Chinese pottery passed the same silk route as spices and textiles from India and southeast Asia and in return , precious metals like gold and silver flowed from Europe to Asia.

•Trade and cultural exchanges went hand in hand as muslim preachers from Asia and Christian missionaries from Europe travelled the silk route to spread their ideas.

•Buddhism from eastern India spread in different parts of world through the points on the silk routes.

1.2 Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato

Food offers many examples of long-distance cultural exchange.

•Traders and travellers introduced new crops. For instance, noodles travelled west from China and became spaghetti.

•Arabs traders brought pasta to Sicily in Italy in 5th century.

•About five centuries ago, our ancestors were unfamiliar with common foods like potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies, and sweet potatoes. These introduced in Asia and Europe after the discovery of America where American Indian, the original inhabitants of America used them by Christopher Columbus.

•Humble Potato –Europe’s poor lived longer and Ireland poorest peasants dependent on potato for their survival .When this crop was destroyed, thousands of people died of starvation

1.3 Conquest, Disease and Trade

•In the 16th century,pre modern world shranked and European sailors discovered sea route to Asia and the Indian Ocean had bustling trade with goods, people, knowledge, and customs crisscrossing its waters. Europeans entered and redirected these flows towards Europe.

•After the discovery of America and since the 16th century,its crops and trade transformed trade and lives everywhere.

•Precious metals particularly silver from the mines of present day Peru and Mexico enhanced the Europe’s wealth and financed it’s trade with Asia.

•Many expedition set off in search of El Dorado,the fabled city of gold.

•By the mid-sixteenth century, the Portuguese and Spanish had decisively conquered and colonised America.

•The Europeans’ most powerful weapon were germs like smallpox, which they carried on their people instead of conventional military arms .

Smallpox proved to be a deadly killer as American inhabitants had not developed immunity against this disease that came from Europe.It killed and reduced the whole communities and paved the way of conquest.

•Until the nineteenth century, poverty and hunger were common in Europe ,plantation worked by slaves captured in Africa were growing cotton and sugar for European market.

•Until well into the eighteenth century, China and India were among the world’s richest countries.

• From the fifteenth century, China restricted overseas contacts and retreated into isolation . China’s isolation moved the centre of trade to Europe and then it emerged as the centre of world trade

Money and Credit Class 10 Notes

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In this post, money and Credit class 10 notes are elaborately discussed that are helpful for board exams preparation of Class 10 Economics chapter 3 Money and Credit.Here there is explanation of money as medium of exchange, double coincidence of wants, barter System, traditional and modern form of money,types of credit and SHGs.After reading the notes of chapter 3 Money and credit class 10 Economics students would feel confident in his exams.

Chapter 3 Money and credit Notes

Money as a Medium of Exchange

Barter System

A system in which goods are directly exchanged with goods or services without the use of money. Double coincidence of wants is an important feature of it.

Double Coincidence of Wants

When both parties have to agree to sell and buy each others commodities.This is known as Double coincidence of wants. What a person desires to sell is exactly what the other wishes to buy

Money

In an economy, money by providing the intermediate step help to eliminates the need for double coincidence of wants. It is no longer necessary for the customer to look the person who requires what he produces.Since money acts as an intermediate in the exchange process, It is called a medium of exchange.

A person holding money can easily exchange it for any commodity or service that he or she might want.Thus everyone prefers to receive payments in money and then exchange the money for things that they want.

Modern Forms of Money

In the early ages, grains and cattle were used as money. Thereafter the use of metallic coins – gold, silver, copper coins – a phase which continued well into the last century came into use. Now, the modern forms of money include currency – paper notes and coins.

They are accepted as medium of exchange as it is authorised by the government of the country. modern currency is without any use of its own

Currency

In India, the Reserve Bank of India issues currency notes on behalf of the central government. No other individual or organisation is allowed to issue currency. So the rupee is widely accepted as a medium of exchange in India.

Moreover, the law legalises the use of rupee as a medium of payment that cannot be refused in settling transactions in India. No individual in India can legally refuse  payment made in rupees. Hence,the rupee is widely accepted as a medium of exchange.

Deposits in Banks

The other form in which people hold money is as deposits with banks. People deposit their extra cash with the banks by opening a bank account in their name. Banks accept the deposits and also pay an amount as interest on the deposits.

Demand Deposits

The deposits in the bank accounts can be withdrawn on demand, these deposits are called demand deposits. The facility of cheques against demand deposits makes it possible to directly settle payments without the use of cash. Since demand deposits are accepted widely as a means of payment, along with currency, they constitute money in the modern economy.

Cheque

A cheque is a paper instructing the bank to pay a specific amount from the person’s account to the person in whose name the cheque has been issued.

Loan Activities of Banks

Banks keep only a small proportion of their deposits as cash with themselves. These days banks in India hold about 15% of their deposits as cash. This is kept as a provision to pay the depositors who might come to withdraw money from the bank on any given day. Banks use the major portion of the deposits to extend loans. There is a huge demand for loans for various economic activities. Banks charge a higher interest rate on loans than what they offer on deposits. The difference between what is charged by borrowers and what is paid to depositors is their main source of income for banks.

Two Different Credit Situations

Credit

Credit (loan) refers to an agreement in which the lender supplies the borrower with money, goods or services in return for the promise of future payment.

Here are two examples which help you to understand how credit works.

In the first scenario, a person gets leather from leather supplier in promise of payment later in future and also takes advances from manufacturers to meet the needs of extra labour, raw material and other products  And by the end of the year, he or she has made a big profit from manufacturing operations and is able to repay the loan. As a result, the person is in a better position than previously.

ii. In the second scenario, a woman borrows money from moneylenders for crop production . Crop production involves considerable costs on seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, water, electricity, repair of equipment, etc In first year,she was not able to repay the loan and again take loans but in second year, production was normal that could not pay the loan of two years.And by the end of the year, he or she has fallen into a financial trap. As a result, that person is in a worse situation than before.

In one situation credit helps to increase earnings and therefore the person is better off than before. In another situation, because of the crop failure, credit pushes the person into a debt trap.

Chapter 4 Globalisation And the Indian Economy Notes

Terms of Credit

Every loan agreement specifies an interest rate that the borrower must pay to the lender along with the repayment of the principal. In addition, lenders also demand collateral (security) against loans.

Collateral (Security) is an asset that the borrower owns (such as land, building, vehicle, livestock, deposits with banks) and uses this as a guarantee to a lender until the loan is repaid. If the borrower fails to repay the loan, the lender has the right to sell the asset or collateral to obtain payment.

Interest rate, collateral and documentation requirement and the mode of repayment, together, are called the terms of credit. It may vary depending on the nature of the lender and the borrower.

Formal Sector Credit in India

Cheap and affordable credit is crucial for the country’s development. The various types of loans can be grouped as follows:

Formal sector loans:

 Loans from banks and cooperatives come in this category.

Functions of Reserve Bank of India in Formal Loans

  • The Reserve Bank of India supervises the functioning of formal sources of loans.
  • RBI  monitors the banks  in maintaining cash balance out of the deposits it recieves from the depositors
  • RBI overlooks that the bank give loans not just to large profit making bussine but also to small farmers,small and medium scale industries and the small borrowers.
  • RBI ask banks to submit information  on how much they are lending, to whom, at what interest rate, etc.

Demerits of Informal Sector of Loans

  • . No organisation which supervises the credit activities of lenders in the informal sector.
  •                  These are the loans from moneylenders, traders, employers etc who lend at whatever interest rate they want.
  • Nobody stops them from using unfair means to get their money back.

Debt Trap

High rate of interest for borrowing in informal sector means amount to be repaid is greater than income of borrowers if it is for long period of time.It could lead to increasing debt on borrowers and he come in debt trap.

Formal Credit and Development

When formal sector includes banks and cooperatives provides loans at cheap rate of interest then

  • more people could borrow for fulfilling  various needs.
  • Farmers could grow two or more  crops that could assist him to improve his financial conditions and can come out of debt trap.
  • Some people can start new businesses which increase the level of income of both businessmen and people employed by him.
  • People in rural areas can set up small scale industries that would provide employment there and can stop urban migration and keep away from various social problems like health issues.
  • •               Cheap credit also help to reduce poverty, employment and social problems that  poor people face as income increases.

So, cheap and affordable credit is crucial for the country’s development.

Who gets what

  • 85 percent of loans taken by poor people in urban areas from informal sources.
  • 90 percent of rich people take loans from formal sources .
  • Similar trends is found in rural areas also.
  • Rich households avail cheap and affordable credit and poor households pay large borrowing that increase gap between rich and poor.

Self Help Groups for the Poor

Cause of the emergence of SHGs

  • Poor households depends on informal sources to meet their financial needs.
  • In rural India, getting loan from bank is more difficult than informal sources as banks ask for collateral which poor doesn’t have .
  •  Getting loan from informal sources like money lender is easy for poor without collateral as he knows him.
  •  Money lender charge high rate of interest and don’t maintain transaction records properly and harass the poor.

So,a new and innovative way was started to address these issues in rural India known as (SHGs).

Meaning

SHGs are small groups of poor people particularly women who encourage their members to save small amounts of money regularly. A typical SHG includes 15-20 members who meet and save on a regular basis, usually from the same neighbourhood.

Advantages of Self Help Group (SHG):

  • It helps members to take small loans from it without collateral.
  • Interest rate of loan is much less than what money lender charges.
  • SHGs are the foundational block of the rural poor’s organisation.
  • Bank offers loans on the name of SHGs,if it functions efficiently
  • It encourages women to become financially self-sufficient by starting new enterprises together.

Why bank give loans to SHGs

Important decisions regarding the savings and loan to be granted – the purpose and amount, interest to be charged, repayment schedule etc are taken by group members itself.Any case of non- repayment of loan by any member is tackle seriously by others members of the group.These important features make SHGs eligible to get loan from bank without collateral.

Social Responsibility by SHGs

The group’s regu meetings give a forum for discussing and taking action on a variety of social issues such as health, nutrition, domestic violence, and so on.

Chapter 2 Sector of the Indian Economy Class 10 Notes

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In this post chapter 2 Sector of the Indian Economy Class 10 notes is explained comprehensively to have clear understanding in an easy manner. Students would be confident before giving exams after preparing these Sectors of Indian Economy Class 10 Notes.

Chapter 2 Sector of The Indian Economy Notes|Class 10 Economics Notes

Sectors

When various economic activities are grouped using the criteria how income is generated by people engaged in them are called sectors.

Primary Sector

When we produce the goods by exploiting the natural resources directly , it is known as the primary sector. It is called primary because it forms the base of all the products that we produce in secondary Sector E.g., Farming, forestry, hunting, fishing and mining.

Secondary Sector

The secondary sector covers activities in which natural products are changed into other forms through ways of manufacturing that are associated with industrial activities.. Since this sector gradually associated with different kinds of industries that came up,it is also called the industrial sector. For example, using cotton fibre from the plant, we spin yarn and weave cloth.

Tertiary Sector

The tertiary sector includes activities that help in the development of the primary and secondary sectors. These activities, by themselves, do not produce a good, but they are an aid or support for the production process. That’s why It is also called the service sector. Example: Teachers, doctors, washermen, barbers, cobblers, lawyers, call centres, software companies, gives services rather than producing goods.

Economic activities that are grouped into different categories are highly interdependent to one another.

Comparison of three sectors

Each sector has contribution in total production of goods and services.The value of  final goods and services produced in each sector during a particular year provides the total production of the sector for that year.And,sum of production in three sectors gives Gross Domestic Product.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP): It is the value of all final goods and services produced  within the country during an accounting year

Each sector differs in terms of total production (GDP ) and employment. Service sector has the largest contribution in GDP

How is total production calculated

Economists suggest that the value of goods and services should be calculated rather than adding up the number.It gives us correct calculation .While calculating the value,we add only the value of final goods and services instead of intermediate goods because final goods already includes the value of all intermediate goods.If we add value of intermediate goods it can cause the value of same things counted many times and wrong GDP would come.

Final goods – Those goods that are ready for the consumption by a consumer without any further transformation are final goods .

 Intermediate Goods – These goods are used in the production processes to produce final goods and services.

Eg. Biscuit is final goods but flour, sugar and oil etc are intermediate goods.

Money and Credit Class 10 Notes

Historical Change in Sectors

Even in developed countries,at initial of development primary Sector was the important sector.As the farming methods changed and agriculture flourished, many people moved and take up other activities. Over a time,Manufacturing was introduced as good from primary sector used in production of goods and gradually secondary sector expanded.Then,traders, craftsperson, transporter etc were required and most people were employed in providing services and new services were also started.

A shift has occurred from secondary to tertiary sector in developed countries and tertiary sector became the most important in terms of total production and employment ..

Rising Importance of Tertiary Sector

1.Services such as hospitals, educational institutions, post and telegraph services, police stations, courts, village administrative offices, municipal corporations, defence, transport, banks, insurance companies, etc., are considered basic services and are necessary for all people.

2.The development of agriculture and industry leads to the development of services such as transport, trade, storage,

3.As the income of people rise, they start demanding more services like eating out, tourism, shopping, private hospitals, private schools, professional training, etc.

4. Over the past decade, certain new services based on information and communication technology have become important and essential so rising rapidly.

There are limited services that employ highly skilled and educated workers and large number of people are engaged in services like shopkeeper repair person, driver and loader etc.These people barely manage to earn for a living as no other opportunities are available to them.

Where are most people employed?

There is change in the share of all sectors in the GDP and employment.

In the 1973-74, primary sector had huge contribution in both GDP and employment but this trend changed and now,service sector has the largest contribution in GDP but primary sector is still the largest sector in terms of employment.

  • Industrial output increased more than 9 times but employment went up three times.
  • Production in service sector rose by 14 times but employment increased around five times.
  • Agriculture shares quarter in GDP but half of the workers are employed in primary sector.
  • Secondary and tertiary sector produce fourth fifth of total production but employment less than half of the people..

Workers in agricultural sector are underemployed as everyone is working,none remain idle but in actual their labour effect gets divided.It means that each of them is busy but not fully employed as everyone works less than the potential. and this situation is called underemployment.It is hidden unemployment as person is not visible as unemployed It is also called disguised unemployment.

Disguised Unemployment – This type of unemployment happens when more persons are engaged than the actual required number of people. It means that if we remove some people then no effect would be in the total output .It is a feature of agriculture.

This underemployment can also be seen in other sectors like casual workers in service sector in urban areas who search for daily employment like plumber,painter,masons  etc. These people don’t get work everyday and sometimes earn very little as they don’t have better opportunities.

How to create more employment

  • Bank can provide loans at cheap rate for agricultural inputs, seeds and fertilizer etc.
  • Investing in infrastructure such as building a dam and canals that would generate employment within the agriculture itself.
  • Govt invest in increasing efficiency of transportation, Storage and roads.
  • Identity, promote and locate the industries and services in semi rural areas such as mills, cold storage honey collection centers.for farmers that will provide employment at rural areas.
  • Building school would employ teachers and other staff so education sector could be developed.
  • Health related services in rural areas are needed that require doctor,nurses, health worker etc to work so it would create jobs.
  • Identifying potential of every state or region. For example, an area can be developed for tourism,region craft . industries or new services like IT.

Above mentioned points would take long time but in short time govt need quick measures to address unemployment .

MNREGA

Central government in India made a law implementing Right to Work in about 625 districts of India. Under MGNREGA,all those who are able to,and are in need of,work in rural areas are guaranteed 100 days of employment.If a govt fails in its duty to provide employment,it will give unemployment allowances to the people.

How to Protect Workers in Unorganised Sector

Many organised sector enterprises  work in unorganised sector to evade taxes and refuse to follow laws that protect labourers.As a result,workers in unorganised sector are exploited by paying low wages and no other benefits.So there is need to protect and support of workers in unorganised sector.

  • In rural areas, unorganised sector comprises of landless labourers, small and marginal farmers, sharecroppers and artisans (weavers, blacksmith, carpenter etc)..
  •  Small and marginal farmers need to be supported by providing adequate facilities for timely delivery of seeds, agricultural inputs, credit, storage facilities and marketing outlets.
  • In urban areas, unorganised sector comprises mainly of workers in small scale industry, casual workers in construction, trade and transport, street vendors, garment makers,ragpickers etc.
  • Majority of the workers from scheduled castes, tribes and backward castes communities are working in unorganised sector and face social discrimination.

Protection and support to workers in unorganised sector is necessary for both economic and social development

Organised and Unorganised Sector

Organised Sector

  • They are registered by the government and have to follow its rules and regulations  such as the Factories Act, Minimum Wages Act, Payment of Gratuity Act etc.
  • Employment terms are fixed and regular, and the employees get assured work.
  • The job is regular and has fixed working hours.
  • Workers enjoy the security of employment.
  • People get various benefits such as paid leave, payment during holidays, provident fund, gratuity, etc.
  • Facilities like drinking water and a safe working environment are provided.

Unorganised Sector

  • The unorganised sector is characterised by small and scattered units, which are largely outside the control of the government.
  • There are rules and regulations but these are not followed since they are not registered with the government.
  • Jobs are low-paid and often not regular.
  • Employment is not secure. People can be asked to leave without any reason.
  • There is no provision for overtime, paid leave, holidays, leave due to sickness, etc.
  • There are no pension ,gratuity etc in the unorganised sector.

Sector on the basis of ownership

Public Sector                                   

  • In the public sector, the government owns most of the assets and provides all the services.
  • Railways or post office is an example of the public sector. 
  • The purpose of the public sector is not just to earn profits.
  • Its main aim is public welfare.

Private Sector

  • In the private sector, ownership of assets and delivery of services is in the hands of private individuals or companies.
  • Companies like Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO) or Reliance Industries Limited (RIL) are privately owned companies.
  • Activities in the private sector are guided by the motive to earn profits.

Responsibilities of the Government

  • Government raises money through taxes and other ways to meet expenses on the services rendered by it.
  • Government take responsibility of the construction of roads, bridges, railways, harbours, generating electricity, providing irrigation through dams, etc as private sector doesn’t have any interest and also to ensure these facilities to everyone.
  • The government can encourage the small scale units to continue their production or business by providing benefits like cheap electricity or infrastructure etc.
  • The government in India buys wheat and rice from farmers at a ‘fair price’ and sells them at a lower price to consumers through ration shops. In this way, it supports both farmers and consumers.
  • Providing education and health facilities are primary responsibility of the government.
  • The government also needs to pay attention to aspects of human development such as the availability of safe drinking water, housing facilities for the poor, food and nutrition, and taking care of the poorest and most ignored regions of the country.

Class 10 Economics Sector of the Indian Economy Notes|Sector of the Indian Economy Class 10 Economics Notes

Water Resources Class 10 Geography Notes

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Water resources class 10 Geography notes is comprehensively discussed which would cover various topics of chapter 3 water resources of class 10 Geography ncert.It encompasses topic like sources of freshwater ,water scarcity,causes of water scarcity,dams and multipurpose projects and rainwater harvesting.

Water

Three-fourth of the earth’s surface is covered with water, but only a small proportion of it accounts for freshwater which is less than

Sources of Freshwater

• Surface run off

ground water

• Precipitation

All water moves within the hydrological cycle ensuring that water is a renewable resource.

WATER SCARCITY AND THE NEED FOR WATER CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT

Given the abundance and renewability of water,we suffer from water scarcity. we immediately associate it with regions having low rainfall or those that are drought prone.

Causes of Water Scarcity

•The availability of water resources varies over space and time, mainly due to the variations in seasonal and annual precipitation

•Over-exploitation

•Excessive use

• unequal access to water among different social groups

• Large and growing population

• Water intensive agriculture

• Industrialisation and urbanisation

Population and Water Scarcity

A large population requires more water not only for domestic use but also to produce more food. Hence, to facilitate higher food-grain production, water resources are being over-exploited to expand irrigated areas for dry-season agriculture. Irrigated agriculture is the largest consumer of water

Industrialisation and Water Scarcity

Industries, apart from being heavy users of water, also require power to run them. Much of this energy comes from hydroelectric power. Today, in India hydroelectric power contributes approximately 22 per cent of the total electricity produced.

Urbanisation and water scarcity

Multiplying urban centres with large and dense populations and urban lifestyles have not only added to water and energy requirements but have further aggravated the problem. They have their own groundwater pumping devices to meet their water needs.There has been a growing concern that even if there is ample water to meet the needs of the people, much of it may be polluted by domestic and industrial wastes, chemicals,pesticides and fertilisers used in agriculture, thus, making it hazardous for human use.

Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM)

The Goal of JJM is to enable every rural household get assured supply of potable piped water at a service level of 55 litres per capita per day regularly on long-term basis by ensuring functionality of the tap water connections.

Need to conserve water resources

• To safeguard ourselves from health hazards

• to ensure food security, continuation of our livelihoods and productive activities

• to prevent degradation of our natural ecosystems.

Over exploitation and mismanagement of water resources will impoverish this resource and cause ecological crisis that may have profound impact on our lives.

Forest and Wildlife Resources Class 10 Geography Notes

Dam

A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often creating a reservoir, lake or impoundment.“Dam” refers to the reservoir rather than the structure.

Advantages of Dams( Multiplepurpose projects)

• impound rivers and rainwater that could be used later to irrigate agricultural fields.

• built not only for irrigation but also for electricity generation.

• Water supply for domestic and industrial uses• flood control

• Recreation

• inland navigation and fish breeding.

Hence, dams are now referred to as multi-purpose projects where the many uses of the impounded water are integrated with one another.

Development and Multipurpose Projects

Multi-purpose projects, launched after independence with their integrated water resources management approach, were thoughtof as the vehicle that would lead the nation to development and progress, overcoming the handicap of its colonial past. Jawaharlal Nehru proudly proclaimed the dams as the ‘temples of Modern India’; the reason being that it would integrate development of agriculture and the village economy with rapid industrialisation and growth of the urban economy.

Negative Consequences of Multipurpose Projects and Dams

• Regulating and damming of rivers affect their natural flow causing poor sediment flow.

• excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the reservoir, resulting in rockier stream beds and poorer habitats for the rivers’ aquatic life.

• Dams also fragment rivers making it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate, especially for spawning.

• The reservoirs that are created on the floodplains also submerge the existing vegetation and soil leading to its decomposition over a period of time

• cause of many new environmental movements like the ‘Narmada Bachao Andolan’ and the ‘Tehri Dam Andolan.

• Local people often had to give up their land, livelihood and their meagre access and control over resources for the greater good of the nation

Reason for opposition of Multiple purpose projects

• Triggered floods due to sedimentation in the reservoir

• Also caused extensive soil erosion.

• Induce earthquakes, caused water-borne diseases and pests and pollution resulting from excessive use of water

Rainwater Harvesting

Water harvesting is a system of collection and storage of rain water that runs off from roof tops, open grounds, et that is either stored or recharged into the groundwater. Water harvesting system was a viable alternative, both socio-economically and environmentally . People had in-depth knowledge of rainfall regimes and soil types and developed wide ranging techniques to harvest rainwater, groundwater, river water and flood water in keeping with the local ecological conditions and their water needs.

•In Hill and mountainous regions, people built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of the Western Himalayas for agriculture.

•‘Rooftop rainwater harvesting’ was commonly practised to store drinking water, particularly in Rajasthan.

• In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation channels to irrigate their fields.

• In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain fed storage structures that allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil like the ‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other parts of Rajasthan

• In Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi and Barmer, almost all the houses traditionally had underground tanks or tankas for storing drinking water.

• Rainwater, or Palar pani, as commonly referred to in these parts, is considered the purest form of natural water.

Important Facts

• Rooftop rainwater harvesting is the most common practice in Shillong, Meghalaya

• Cherapunjee and Mawsynram situated at a distance of 55 km. from Shillong receive the highest rainfall in the world, yet the state capital Shillong faces acute shortage of water.

• Tamil Nadu is the first state in India which has made rooftop rainwater harvesting structure compulsory to all the houses across the state.

Forest and Wildlife Resources Class 10 Geography Notes

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This article deals with the Forest and Wildlife Resources Class 10 Geography Notes which is a part of latest syllabus of class 10 geography for the board exam 2025.It is quite knowledgeable content that has covered each topic of chapter 2 geography forest and Wildlife Resources of Class 10 SST.It would help students to cover this forest and Wildlife Resources chapter 2 geography in an comprehensive manner.

CLASS 10 Geography Forest and Wildlife Resources Notes

Chapter 2 Forest and Wildlife Resources Class 10 Geography has touched every topic of latest syllabus of CBSE class 10 SST for 2024-25 session.This post discusses ecosystem, biological diversity, conservation of forest and wildlife, project tiger, wildlife protection Act,Govt initiatives for conservation, community and conservation,sacred and Joint Forest Management Programme in a descriptive manner that would enrich student’s knowledge about this chapter .It would help students to achieve good score in cbse board exam of class 10 SST.

Introduction

 This entire earth that we live in has immense biodiversity from small micro organisms to large blue whales. We humans along with all living organisms form a complex web of ecological system in which we are only a part and very much dependent on this system for our own existence.

Importance of Forest

 The plants, animals and micro-organisms re-create the quality of the air we breathe, the water we drink and the soil that produces our food without which we cannot survive. Forests play a key role in the ecological system as these are also the primary producers on which all other living beings depend.

Biological Diversity

Biodiversity or Biological Diversity is  richness in living beings including wildlife and cultivated species, diverse in form and function but closely integrated in a system through multiple network of interdependencies.

Flora and Fauna

There are some animals and plants which are unique in your area.  India is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of its vast array of biological diversity.  These diverse flora and fauna are so well integrated in our daily life but they are under great stress due to insensitivity to the environment.

Flora

The vegetation which is unique and specific to a particular region is flora for that region.

Fauna

The wildlife that are found in a specific region and unique for that region

Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India

Conservation in the background of rapid  decline in wildlife population and forestry has become essential.

 Need to conserve forests and wildlife

  • Conservation preserves the ecological diversity and our life support systems – water, air and soil.
  • It also preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals for better growth of species and breeding.
  • Fisheries too are heavily dependent on the maintenance of aquatic biodiversity.

Methods of Conservation of Forest and Wildlife

Inthe1960sand1970s,conservationists demanded a national wildlife protection programme.

  • The Indian Wildlife (Protection)Act was implemented in 1972, with various provisions for protecting habitats.
  • An all-India list of protected species was also published
  • Central and many state governments established national parks and wildlife sanctuaries
  • The central government also announced several projects for protecting specific animals, which were gravely threatened, including the tiger, the one-horned rhinoceros, the Kashmir stag or hangul, three types of crocodiles – fresh water crocodile, saltwater crocodile and the Gharial, the Asiatic lion, and others.
  • Even insects are beginning to find a place in conservation planning. In the notification under Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986, several hundred butterflies, moths beetles and one dragon fly have been added to the list of protected species.

Inthe1960s and1970s,conservationists demanded a national wildlife protection programme.

Need of Wildlife Protection Act Programme

  • Protecting the remaining population of certain endangered species by banning hunting, giving legal protection to their habitats, and restricting trade in wildlife.
  • Most recently, the Indian elephant, black buck (chinkara), the great Indian bustard (godawan) and the snow leopard, etc. have been given full or partial legal protection against hunting and trade throughout India.
  • The conservation projects are now focusing on biodiversity rather than on a few of its components.
  • In 1991, for the first time plants were also added to the list,starting with six species.

Project Tiger

Tiger is one of the key wildlife species in the faunal web. .“Project Tiger”, one of the well-publicised wildlife campaigns in the world ,was launched in 1973.

Purpose of Project Tiger

Tiger conservation has been viewed not only as an effort to save an endangered species, but with equal importance as a means of preserving biotypes of sizeable magnitude.

Tiger Reserves in India

  1. Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand
  2. Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal
  3. Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh
  4. Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan
  5. Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam
  6. Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala

The major threats to tiger population

  • poaching for trade,
  • shrinking habitat,
  • depletion of prey base species growing human population, etc.
  • The trade of tiger skins and the use of their bones in traditional medicines, especially in the Asian countries left the tiger population on the verge of extinction.

Since India and Nepal provide habitat to about two-thirds of the surviving tiger population in the world, these two nations became prime targets for poaching and illegal trading.

Types of Forest

In India, much of its forest and wildlife resources are either owned or managed by the government through the Forest Department or other government departments. These are classified under the following categories.

Reserved Forests

More than half of the Total forest land has been declared reserved forests. Reserved forests are regarded as the most valuable as far as the conservation of forest and wildlife resources are concerned.

  • Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh,Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Maharashtra have large percentages of reserved forests of its total forest area

Protected Forest

Almost one third of the total forest area is protected forest, as declared by the Forest Department. This forest land are protected from any further depletion.

  • Bihar, Haryana, Punjab,HimachalPradesh,Odisha and Rajasthan have a bulk of it under protected forests.

Unclassed Forest – These are the other Forests and wastelands belonging to Both government and private individuals And communities.

  • All North eastern states and parts of Gujarat have a very high percentage of their forests as unclassed forests managed by local communities.

Reserved and protected forests are also referred to as permanent forest estates maintained for the purpose of producing timber and other forest produce, and for protective reasons.

 Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under permanent forests, constituting 75 percent of its total forest area.

Community and Conservation. 

In India, forests are also home to some of the traditional communities, local communities are struggling to conserve these habitats along with government officials, recognising that only this will secure their own long-term livelihood.

Role of Community in Conservation

  • In Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, villagers have fought against mining by citing the Wildlife Protection Act.
  • In many areas, villagers themselves are protecting habitats and explicitly rejecting government involvement.
  • The inhabitants of five villages in the Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared 1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev  Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, declaring their own set of rules and regulations which do not allow hunting, and are protecting the wildlife against any outside encroachments.
  • The famous Chipko movement in the Himalayas has not only successfully resisted deforestation in several areas but has also shown that community afforestation with indigenous species can be enormously successful.
  • Attempts to revive the traditional conservation methods or developing new methods of ecological farming are now widespread.
  • Farmers and citizen’s groups like the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have shown that adequate levels of diversified crop production without the use of synthetic chemicals are possible and economically viable.
  • In India joint forest management (JFM)programme furnishes a good example for involving local communities in the management and restoration of degraded forests.

Joint Forest Management Programme

The programme has been informal existence since 1988 when the state of Odisha passed the first resolution for joint forest management. JFM depends on the formation of local(village) institutions that undertake protection activities mostly on degraded forest land managed by the forest department. In return, the members of these communities are entitled to intermediary benefits like non-timber forest produces and share in the timber harvested by‘ successful protection’.

 local communities everywhere have to be involved in some kind of natural resource management. Local communities are at the centre-stage in decision-making. Accept only those economic or developmental activities, that are people centric,environment-friendly and economically rewarding.

Sacred Grooves

Nature worship is an age old tribal belief based on the premise that all creations of nature have to be protected.Such beliefs have preserved several virgin forests in pristine form called Sacred Groves (the forests of God and Goddesses). These patches of forest or parts of large forests have been left untouched by the local people and any interference with them is banned.

  • Mundas and the Santhal of Chota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocaphaluscadamba)trees
  • tribal of Odisha and Bihar worship the tamarind(Tamarindus indica)and mango(Mangiferaindica)trees during weddings.
  •  To many of us, peepal and banyan trees are considered sacred.

 Sacred qualities are often ascribed to springs, mountain peaks, plants and animals which are closely protected. In and around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan, herds of blackbuck,(chinkara),nilgai and peacocks can be seen as an integral part of the community and nobody harms them.

Class 10 Civics Gender Religion and caste Notes

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In this post each topic of class 10 civics chapter 3 gender religion and caste is discussed in a very comprehensive manner that would be helpful for the students to achieve good score in board exams.Class 10 civics gender religion and caste Notes are given below in this post.

Class 10 Civics Gender Religion and Caste notes

Gender Division –Gender division means segregation of society into men and women’s responsibilities based on prejudice and stereotypes set in society.

Public and Private Division

Private division is associated with women and public division talks of men which is reflected in sexual Division of labour. Women do all work inside the home like cooking, tailoring, washing clothes etc but are not expected to work outside They do more work than men but are not valued and get recognition. Men do all work in public sphere even cooking as he is paid for it and is valued and respected in society.

Sexual Division of Labour – A system in which all division of work inside the home is either done by the women of the family or organised by them through the domestic helpers while men are expected to do work out of home to earn money for fulfilling family needs.

Feminist Movement – Those movements aimed at equality of women to men in personal and family life .

Purpose of Feminist Movement

•Demanding political and legal status of women

•Organised and agitated for equal rights

•Improving their educational and career opportunities .

Political Expression of gender division in politics

Women constitute almost half of the population but this social division cause less opportunities for them in public sphere. So, political expression and mobilization helped to improve women’s role in public life.Now they become scientist, doctor, manager and college and universities professor which were not earlier possible for women. In Scandinavian countries, their participation in public life is very high.In our country. they still lag much behind men as our society is male dominated and become reason of disadvantage, discrimination and oppression in various ways

Literacy Rate: The literacy rate among women is only 64.63% compared with 82.14% among men. This is because parents prefer to spend more resources on their sons rather than daughters as they consider daughter will not live with them forever

→ Position in higher Jobs: There is very low percentage of women in the high paid and high value jobs as just a few girls are encouraged to take up higher education.

→ Equal Wages Act: Equal Wages Act 1976 states that equa wages should be paid for equal work. Despite the Equal Wages Act, women in all areas are paid lesser than men, be it sports, cinema, agriculture or construction works.

→ Sex Ratio: Most parents prefer boy children to girl children that caused decline in child sex ratio (No of girls per thousand males) which is 924. This is based on society stereotypes considering girls as burden on their families.

→ Social Evil: Society in general and urban centres in particular, is not safe for women. Dowry harassment, physical abuse, sexual harassment are routine .

Class 10 Civics Power Sharing Notes

Women’s Political Representation

It is concluded that unless women control power, their problems will not get adequate attention .One way is to ensure by having more women as elected representatives.In India, proportion of women in legislature is very low.Their share in Lok Sabha has touched only 12% and is less than 5% in state assemblies.

It is made legally binding to have fair proportion of women in the elected bodies of India which is done in Panchayati Raj where one third seats are reserved for women in panchayats and municipalities.

It should be done in Lok sabha and State Assemblies but no consensus over this among political parties is made and bill is not passed.

Gender division needs to be expressed in politics that shows disadvantaged groups do get benefits when it became a political issue.

Religion, Communalism and Politics

India have followers of different religions and it cause social division based on religious differences about the way people practice that religion which is not universal as gender.

These religious differences are often expressed in politics.

•Gandhiji used to say that religion can never be separated from politics. It means moral values is learnt in every religion and politics must be guided by those ethical values drawn from religion.

•Major victims of communal riots are people from religious minorities so govt should take steps to protect these religious minorities.

•Family laws of all religions discriminate against women so govt change these laws to grant equality to women.

These instances shows that ideas, ideals and values drawn from different religions should be expressed by religious minorities in politics to fulfil their needs, interest and demands.

Communalism

Communalism begins when religion is seen as the basis of the nation.The problem of communalism become acute when religion is expressed in politics in exclusive and partisan terms.

•When one religion and its followers are pitted against another.

•When beliefs of one religion are presented superior to those of other religions.

.•When demands of one religious group are formed in opposition to another.

•When state power is used to establish domination of one religious group over other religions.

This manner of using religion in politics is communal politics.

Communal Politics

Communal politics is based on the idea that religion is the principal basis of social community and followers of particular religion must belong to one community and their fundamental interest are same.

•It follows that people of different religions cannot belong to the same social community.

•If followers of different religions have some commonalities these are superficial and immaterial .

• Their interest are bound to be different and involves conflict.

•In its extreme conditions, people belong to different religions cannot live as equal citizens within one nation.

Communalism in Politics

•It involves religious prejudices, stereotypes of religious communities and belief in the superiority of one religion over other religions.

•Political dominance of majority community over minority communities and it can cause formation of a separate political unit by minority.

•Political mobilization by the use of sacred symbols, religious leaders, emotional appeals and plain fear to bring the followers of one religion together in political arena.

•Sometimes, communalism take most ugly form and cause communal violence, riots and massacre.

Communalism is a major challenge to democracy and constitution makers were aware of it and chose the model of a secular state.

Secular State

It means state doesn’t have any official religion.

•Unlike Buddhism in Srilanka, Islam in Pakistan, Constitution of India does not give special status of official religion to any religion.

•Constitution gives freedom to all individuals to profess, practice and propagate any religion,or not to follow any religion if he/she desires.

•Prohibition of discrimination based on religion.

•State can interfere in the matter of religion to ensure equality within religious communities. For eg- it bans untouchability.

Secularism is not just an ideology but the foundations of our country. Communal prejudices and propaganda need to be countered in the politics by secular constitution otherwise communalism would threaten the very idea of India.

Caste and Politics

All societies have some social inequalities in various aspects but one unique social inequalities based on caste is a special case to India.

Caste inequalities

When hereditary occupational division was sanctioned by rituals and it was passed from one generation to another and create social inequalities in society .

Caste system was based on exclusion of and discrimination against the outcaste groups.They were subjected to inhuman practice of untouchability.

Jyotiba Phule, Gandhiji,B.R.Ambedkar and Periyar Ramaswami Naicker advocated and worked to establish a society in which caste inequalities are absent .It is their efforts and social economic changes, great changes in caste system have seen in modern India.

With economic development, large scale urbanisation, growth of literacy, education, occupational mobility and weakening of position of landlords in villages, the old notions of caste hierarchy are breaking down.

Constitution of India prohibited any caste based discrimination and laid the foundations of policies to reverse the injustice of the caste system.Untouchability has not ended completely despite constitutional prohibition .

The caste that had access to education under the old system have done well in acquiring modern education. That is why there is disproportionately large presence of upper caste among the urban middle classes in our country. Caste continues to be closely linked to economic status .

Casteism

Casteism is rooted in the belief that caste is the sole basis of social community . According to it, people belonging to the same caste belong to a natural social community and have same interests which they do not share with anyone from another caste.

Caste in Politics

Caste can take various forms in politics

•When parties choose candidates in elections, they nominate candidates on the basis of the caste composition of that electorate to win elections.

•Some political parties and candidates are known to favour some castes so they appeal to caste sentiments to get their votes.

•Universal adult franchise and principal of one person one vote compelled political leaders to develop consciousness among voters who are treated as inferior and low and mobilise them to secure votes.

•Every party and candidate tries to win confidence of more than one caste and community to win elections.

•Caste is a vote bank of one party usually means that a large proportion of that caste and community vote for that party.

•Many political parties nominate candidate from the same caste that dominate in a particular constituency.

•The ruling party and sitting MP or MLA frequently lose elections that shows that all castes and communities are not fixed in their political preferences.

Politics in Caste

Politics also influences the caste system and caste identities by bringing them into the political arena.It is not politics that get caste ridden,it is the caste also that get politicised.It happens in various forms.

•Each caste group tries to become bigger by including neighbouring caste or sub caste within it which were excluded earlier.

•Various caste groups enter into coalition with other caste or communities by dialogue and negotiation.

•New kinds of caste groups have come in politics like backward and forward caste groups.

Advantages of caste politics

Expression of caste differences in politics give many disadvantaged communities the space to demand their share in power.It has helped people from Dalits and OBCs castes to gain better access to decision making.Many political and non political organisations have been demanding and agitating for an end to discrimination against particular castes, for more dignity and more access to land, resources and opportunities.

Disadvantage of caste politics

Politics based on caste identity alone is not healthy in a democracy.It can divert attention from many social issues like poverty, development and corruption.Caste division leads to social tension, social conflict and in extreme ,the problem of violence prevails.

Class 10 Political science Chapter 2 Federalism Notes

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Vertical form of Power sharing among different levels of government is a popular and widespread political concept follow in modern democracies. It is commonly referred as federalism. In Chapter 2 Federalism class 10 political science, we will try to understand the theory and practice of federalism in India.

Class 10 Political science Chapter 2 Federalism Notes


Here, we have explained each concept of class 10 chapter 2 federalism very concisely so that it would clear all doubts of board students related to the chapter 2 federalism class 10 and make them feel confident after having good insight about it.

chapter 2 Federalism Class 10 Notes

What is Federalism?

Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country.

A federation has two levels of government. Both these levels of government enjoy their power independently of each Other

Central Government– The government for the entire country, which is usually responsible for a few subjects of common national interest.

State Government- The government at the level of provinces or states, which look after much of the day-to-day administering of their state.

Difference Between Unitary System and Federal System

Unitary GovernmentFederal Government
There is only one level of government, or the sub-units are subordinate to the Central Government.
There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government
The Central Government can pass on orders to the provincial or local government.The Central Government cannot order the state government to do something.
The central government is supreme, and the administrative divisions exercise only powers that the central government has delegated to them. Their powers may be broadened and narrowed by the central government.The State Government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government
Key features of the Federal System
  • There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government.
  • Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own JURISDICTION in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
  • The existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.
  • The fundamental provisions of the Constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government. Such changes require the consent of both levels of government.
  • Courts have the power to interpret the Constitution and the powers of different levels of government. The highest court act as umpire if any dispute arises between different levels of government.
  • Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.
  • The federal system has dual objectives: i) To safeguard and promote the unity of the country and ii) To accommodate regional diversity.

Both level of government should agree to some basic rules of power sharing and trust that each would abide by its part of agreement to develop an ideal federal system where mutual trust and agreement to live together is fulfilled.

Type of Federation in the World

There are two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed. It depends on the historical context of any country how federation would be formed.

Coming Together FederationHolding Together Federation
The first route involves independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger unitThe second route is that a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent States and the national government.
They increase their security by pooling their sovereignity and retaining their identity and have equal powers vis central governmentThe central government is more powerful vis- a- vis the states means they have unequal powers
USA, Switzerland and Australia are in the category of coming together federationIndia, Spain and Belgium are in the category of holding together federation

What Makes India a Federal Country?

India has huge social diversity in various aspects and it became independent after emerging through painful and bloody partition.So, Constitution declared India as a Union of States based on the principles of federation. All features of federalism apply to the provisions of Indian Constitution. The Constitution originally provided for the two tiers system of government (Central govt and state govt) and later third tier was added in 1992 in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities and each enjoy separate jurisdiction in respect of their functioning. Thus, it contains three list in which legislative power of each tier of government is defined.

1) Union List: It includes subjects of national importance such as the defence of the country, foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency. The Union Government alone can make laws relating to the subjects mentioned in this list

.2) State List: It contains subjects of State and local importance such as police, trade, commerce, agriculture and irrigation. The State Governments alone can make laws relating to the subjects mentioned in this list

.3) Concurrent List: It includes subjects of common interest to both the Union Government as well as the State Governments. The list includes education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and succession. Both the Union as well as the State Governments can make laws on the subjects mentioned in this list. If their laws conflict with each other, the law made by the Union Government will be considered

.Residuary Subjects- These subjects came after Constitution was made and only union govt has power to make laws related to it like computer software.

Special Provisions of Some States

All the Indian States don’t have equal powers, some States enjoy special powers like Jammu & Kashmir where many provisions of Indian Constitution are not applicable without the approval of the state Assembly. Only permanent residents of this state can buy land or house.

Union Territories– These are the territories which are too small to become an independent state and can’t be merged and enjoy very little power. These are Chandigarh, Lakshwadeep and Delhi etc which are run by central government by appointing an administrator. Federalism is basic structure of the Indian Constitution so any change to it has to be passed first by both house of parliament with atleast two third majority and ratified by atleast half of the total states.

Constitutional provisions are necessary for the success of federalism but real success of federalism is attributed to the nature of democractic politics in India which is respect for diversity and desire for living together.There are some major ways in which federalism is practised.

How is Federalism practised?

  1. Linguistic States
  2. Language Policy
  3. .Centre- State Relations
    Linguistic States
    The creation of linguistic States was the first and a major test for democratic politics in India. Some states were created not on the basis of language but to recognize differences based on culture, ethicity and geography. These include Nagaland, Jharkhand and Uttrakhand. This creation of linguistic states made country more united and administration easier.
    boundaries
    Language Policy
    A second test for federalism is the language policy. Our Constitution didn’t give the status of national language to any of the 22 Scheduled languages recognised by Constitution. Hindi is the mother tongue of almost 40℅ of Indian, it was identified only as official language to safeguard the other language.
    Candidates in Central government exams can opt any of the languages and states have their own official languages of the concerned state for government work.
    According to Constitution, use of English as official language was to stop in 1965 but it is continued due to the demand by non Hindi speaking states for it. Promotion of Hindi is the official policy of the government of India but it doesn’t mean to impose hindi on non Non Hindi speaking States.

Centre-State relations
Restructuring the Centre-State relations is one more way in which federalism has been strengthened in practice.
In the initial period, same party ruled the centre and states both so state government didn’t exercises their rights as autonomous federal units that undermine the spirit of federalism. But, al this changed after 1990s as there were no clear majority of national party and there was emergence of regional political parties that led to the beginning of era of coalition government at the centre. Since then, national parties made alliance with regional political parties to form government. This caused a new culture of power sharing and respect for the autonomy of state government.
All these methods proven that federalism is practised in democratic politics of India to strengthen the unity of the country by showing respect of social diversity and desire to live together.

Decentralisation in India
India is a vast and populous country that can’t be run only by two tiers of government. Many states are internally very diverse so there is a need of power sharing at lower level within the states that resulted in the creation of third tier of government called local government.
Meaning of Decentralization
When power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to the local government, it is called decentralisation. The basic idea behind decentralisation is that there are a large number of problems and issues which are best settled at the local level. Local people can also directly participate in the decision-making.

A major step towards decentralisation was taken in 1992. The Constitution was amended to make the third tier of democracy more powerful and effective. Here are the key features of 3-tier democracy-

Main Provisions ( Features) of Third tier of government

  • It is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections for local government bodies.
  • Seats are reserved in the elected bodies and the executive heads of these institutions for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
  • At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
  • State Election Commission has been created in each State to conduct panchayat and municipal elections.
  • The State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local government bodies. The nature of sharing varies from State to State.

Gram Panchayat

Rural local government is popularly known as Panchayati Raj. Each village, or a group of villages in some States, has a gram panchayat. This is a council consisting of several ward members, often called panch, and a president or sarpanch. They are directly elected by all the adult population living in a village or ward. Gram Panchayat is the decision-making body for the entire village.

Gram Sabha- All the voters in the village are members of Gram Sabha.The Panchayat works under the overall supervision of the Gram Sabha . It has to meet at least twice or thrice a year to approve the annual budget of the gram panchayat and to review the performance of the Gram Panchayat.

Panchayat Samiti– When Gram Panchayat are grouped together, they form a Panchayat Samiti or Block or Mandal. The member of the Panchayat Samiti representatives are elected by all the Panchayat members in that area.

Zilla Parishad– All the Panchayat Samitis or Mandals in a district together constitute the Zilla (district) Parishad. Members of the Lok Sabha, MLAs of the district, and some other officials of other district-level bodies are members of Zilla Parishad.

Local Government for Urban areas
Municipalities and Municipal Corporation
As Gram Panchayat is for Rural areas, similarly, we have Municipalities for semi-urban Or town areas. Big cities are constituted into Municipal Corporations. Both Municipalities and Municipal Corporations are controlled by elected bodies consisting of people’s representatives. The Municipal Chairperson is the political head of the Municipality. In a Municipal Corporation, such an officer is called the Mayor.

This new system of local government is the largest experiment in democracy conducted anywhere in the world as it has almost 36 lakhs elected representatives in panchayat and municipalities. Constitutional status for local government has helped to deepen democracy in our country. It has also increased women’s representation and voice in our democracy.

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