CLASS 9

Class 9 Economics Poverty as a Challenge Notes|Class 9 Economics Notes

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Class 9 Economics Poverty as a Challenge Notes is comprehensively discussed to have clear understanding of the chapter for the students so that he/she feels confident in his exams.

Poverty as a Challenge Class 9 Economics Notes

Poverty as a challenge is an important chapter of class 9 Economics Ncert that deals with the concept of poverty,issues related to poverty, social exclusion and vulnerability to poverty, poverty line, poverty estimates at regional, national and global level in different decades, vulnerable groups,causes and Anti poverty measures and the challenges associated with this problem.

Introduction

Poverty is a multidimensional problem as it affects poor people socially, economically, physically and emotionally etc.In our daily life, we come across different people like landless labourers, people living in slums, daily wage workers in urban areas, rickshaw puller,beggers etc who could not fulfil their basic needs.

•Every 4th person in India is poor approximately 27 crores people live in poverty in 2011-12.

•India has the largest concentration of poor people in the world which is a major challenge India faces.Issues related to poverty.

Issues related to Poverty

•Landlessness, unemployment, size of families, illiteracy, poor health, child labour and helplessness are the main problem associated with poverty.

•Poverty means absence of the availability of food, shelter, health, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities,sense of security and are ill treated at almost every place.

•Mahatma Gandhi insisted that India would be truly independent only when poorest of the poor became free from human sufferings.Poverty as seen by social scientists Social scientists look poverty through various indicators like illiteracy,lack of general resistance due to malnutrition,lack of access to healthcare, lack of job opportunities, lack of access to safe drinking water, sanitation etc.

Social exclusion and Vulnerability

Social exclusion

According to this concept, people live only in poor surrounding with other poor people excluded from enjoying social equality of better off people in better surroundings.

•Social exclusion can be both a cause as well as a consequence of poverty.

•Individuals or groups are excluded from facilities, benefits and opportunities that others enjoy.

Vulnerability

Vulnerability to poverty means greater probability of certain communities (backward, widow, physically handicapped ) of becoming poor or remaining poor in coming years.It is determined by the options available to different communities for finding an alternative living in terms of assets, education, health and job opportunities.These communities are at great risk during natural disasters (earthquakes, tsunami, terrorism) etc.

Class 9 Economics Chapter 2 People as Resource Notes

Poverty Line

Poverty line is an imaginary line that is considered appropriate to decide person is living in poverty or above it on the basis of his income or consumption level required to fulfil minimum subsistence level or basic needs.A minimum level of food , clothing, footwear, fuel and light, educational and medical requirements etc are determined for subsistence.

Methods to measure poverty

It is based on two parameters

•Income level

•Consumption level

•Poverty line is based on calorie requirement that vary depending on age,sex and type of work that person does.

•Consumption:Average calorie requirement in India is 2400 calories per person per day in rural areas as people here are engaged in more physical work than urban areas where 2100 calories per person per day is required .

•Income:On the basis of income, in 2011-12, poverty line for a person in rural areas was fixed at ₹ 816 per month and ₹ 1000 for urban areas.

•The survey of poverty estimates periodically is conducted by NSSO(National Sample Survey Organisation).

•In comparison among developing countries, World Bank use a uniform standard of 1.90$ per person per day to determine poverty.

Poverty Estimates

•Decline in poverty ratio from 45% in 1993-94 to 37% in 2004-05 and in 2011-12 came down to 22%.

•Number of poor people declined from 407 million in 2004-05 to 270 millions in 2011-12.

•Average annual decline of 2.2 % during 2004-94 to 2011-12

Vulnerable Groups
Poverty is not same for all social groups and economic categories in India.

Social groups -; Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribes

Economic Groups– Rural agricultural labour households and urban casual labour households

•People below poverty line belonging to SCs & STs are 29 and 43 percent .

• Casual labour in rural areas and urban areas are same which is 34 percent.

•Except STs, poverty is declined in rural agricultural labour, urban casual labour households and SCs in 1990s.

•In poor families, income inequalities is faced by some members more than others and they are women, elderly people and female infants who are denied equal access to resources available in family.

Inter State Disparities

•All India head count ratio was 21.9 percent in states like Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa had above all India poverty level.

•Two poorest states with poverty ratios of 33.7 % and 32.6%.

•Along with rural poverty, urban poverty is also high in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.

•Decline in poverty in Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and West Bengal.

•Punjab and Haryana have succeeded in reducing poverty with the help of high agricultural growth rates.

•Kerala has focused on human resource development.

•In West Bengal,land reforms measures helped in reducing poverty.

•In Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, public distribution system of foodgrains have helped in reducing poverty .

Global Poverty Scenerio

Poverty defined by world bank as person living on less than 1.90$ per day has declined from 35 % in 1990 to 10.68 % in 2013.

•Poverty reduced in China and Southeast Asian countries due to high economic growth and huge investment in human resource development.

•No of poor in China came down from 88.3% in 1981 to 14.7% in 2008 to 1.9% in 2013.

•In South Asian countries (India, Pakistan,Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan) poverty is declined from 54 to 15 percent in 2013.

•In sub Saharan Africa, poverty reduced from 54% in 1990 to 41% in 2013.

•In Latin America, poverty declined from 16% in 1990 to 5.4% in 2013.

The new sustainable development goals of the United Nations proposes ending poverty of all types by 2030.

Causes of Poverty

•Historical reason is the low level of economic development under British colonial rule

•Policies of colonial government ruined traditional industries like handicrafts and textiles that resulted in less job opportunities and low income.

•Low level of income accompanied by high h growth of population caused per capita income very low.

•Impact of green revolution was limited to some parts of India even large population was dependent on agriculture.

•Industries in public and private sector were not enough to absorb all the job seekers.

•Unequal distribution of land and other resources during land reforms which aimed at redistribution of assets in rural areas due to improper and ineffective implementation.

•Socio- cultural and economic factors to fulfill social obligations and religious ceremonies are also responsible for indebtedness of poor people.

•Small farmers borrow money to buy inputs like seeds, fertilizers, pesticides etc and in case of crop failure became victim of indebtedness which is cause and effect of poverty.

Anti- Poverty Measures

Current anti -poverty strategy of the government is based broadly on two components.

•Promotion of economic growth

•Targeted anti -poverty programmes

Official estimates state that poverty was 45% in early 1950s remained same till 1980s and then India’ s high economic growth jumped from 3.5% to 6% that reduces poverty to 37.2 in 2004-05.

There is strong link between economic growth and poverty reduction, economic growth widens opportunities and provide resources needed to invest in human resource development.Growth in agriculture sector is much below the expectation where large proportion of population are dependent ha direct impact on poverty.

Anti -Poverty Programmes

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act,2005(MGNREGA )

•It provides 100 days of wage employment to every household to ensure livelihood security in rural areas.

•It aimed at sustainable development to address the cause of draught, deforestation and soil erosion.

•One-third of proposed jobs are reserved for women.

•Provided employment to 220 crores person days of employment.

•Share of SC,ST , women in the scheme are 23%,17% and 53%.

•As in March 2018 average wages varies from ₹281 per day (in Haryana) to ₹168 in Bihar and Jharkhand.

Prime Minister Rozgar Yojana

•Started in 1993

•Aim is to create self employment opportunities for educated unemployed youths in rural and small towns.

•Helped in setting up small business and industries

Rural Employment Generation Programme

•Launched in 1995

•Aim is to create self employment opportunities in rural areas and small towns.

•25 lakhs new jobs has been set for the Programme under 10th five years plan.

Swaranajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana

•Launched in 1999.

•Aim is to bringing poor families above poverty line by organising them into self help groups through mix of bank credit and government subsidy

Pradhanmantri Gramodaya Yojana

•Launched in 2000.

•Additional assistance is given to states for basic services such as primary health, primary education, rural shelter, rural drinking water and rural electrification.

Lack of proper implementation and right targeting and lot of overlapping of schemes caused the benefits of these schemes are not reached to deserving poor so it requires proper monitoring of all the poverty alleviation programme.

The Challenges Ahead

•Wide disparities in poverty are visible between rural and urban areas and among different states.

•Certain social and economic groups are vulnerable to poverty.

The official definition of poverty covers only minimum ‘subsistence’ level of living rather than ‘reasonable ‘level of living .

Scholars advocates that concept of poverty be broaden into human poverty.Human poverty deals with food education, health,shelter,job security, self confidence,,free from gender and caste based discrimination and child labour etc.With development,the definition of poverty changes and the challenges are more than the subsistence level of living like providing healthcare and education,job security,gender equality and dignity for the poor

Drainage Notes Class 9 Geography

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In this article ,we have given Drainage Notes Class 9 Geography which would help students to have clear understanding of drainage, drainage basin,river system, Himalayan rivers, peninsular rivers, lakes and rivers pollution etc.Chapter 3 Drainage Notes class 9 Geography here is enough for students to have confidence to get good marks.

Class 9 Geography Drainage Notes

Drainage

Drainage describes the river system of an area.

River System

The small streams flowing from the different directions along with the main  river is called the river system of main river.

Drainage Basin

The area drained by a single river system is called a drainage basin.

Water Divide

Any upland or a mountain separating two adjoining drainage basins is known as water divide.

Drainage Systems in India

Drainage system in India is defined by the broad relief features of Indian subcontinent.On that basis the drainage systems are divided into two main groups

 the Himalayan rivers and the Peninsular rivers.

Himalayan rivers:

  • These rivers are mostly perennial, means they flow throughout the year.
  • They are fed by rainwater as well as melted snow from the high mountains.
  • Himalayan rivers have long courses from their source in the mountains .
  • These rivers form meanders, ox bow lake and many other depositional features
  • Major rivers like the Indus,Ganga and the Brahmaputra are Himalayan rivers

Peninsular rivers:

  • Peninsular rivers are seasonal, relying heavily on rainfall for their flow.
  • Most of these rivers originate in the Western Ghats and flow eastwards towards the Bay of Bengal.
  • Peninsular rivers have shorter and shallower courses.
  • Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri are peninsular rivers

The Himalayan Rivers

  1. The Indus River System
  2. one of the longest rivers hav length of 2900 km.
  3. Rises in Tibet near Lake Mansarovar and enters India through the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir form gorges.
  4. Zaskar,Nubra,Shyok and Hunza join it in Kashmir region.
  5.  In Pakistan, the Indus is joined by major tributaries including the Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum near Mithankot.
  6. A little over one-third of Indus basin is in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab.

Indus Water Treaty

According to the regulations of   Indus Water Treaty (1960),India can use only 20 percent of total water that is used by Punjab, Haryana and Southern and western parts of Rajasthan for irrigation.

  • The Ganga River System
  • originate as the Bhagirathi from the Gangotri Glacier and is joined by the Alaknanda at Devaprayag in Uttarakhand.
  •  It emerges from the Himalayas into the plains at Haridwar, where it begins its journey through northern India.
  •   Major rivers like the Yamuna, Ghaghara, Gandak, and Kosi are tributaries emerge from Himalayas.
  • Yamuna rises from yamunotri glaciers and flow parallel to Ganga and join it as right bank tribtutary at Allahabad.
  • Chambal, Betwa ,Ken and Son rise from semi arid and peninsular uplands are also tributaries.
  • With a length over 2500 km, the Ganga flows southeastward and bifurcates at the northernmost point of the Ganga Delta in Farakka, West Bengal.
  •  The Bhagirathi-Hooghly (distributary) branch continues southward through deltaic plains to the Bay of Bengal
  •  the mainstream flows southward into Bangladesh and join with the Brahmaputra to form the Meghna River.
  •  The Sundarbans Delta is formed by these rivers, is world’s largest and fastest growing delta and home to Royal Bengal Tiger.

Namami Gange Programme

It is an integrated conservation mission approved as flagship programme by the Union Govt in June 2014 to accomplish twin objectives of effective abatement of pollution, conservation and rejuvenation of national river Ganga.

3) The Brahmaputra River System:

  • Rises in Tibet east of Mansarovar Lake, clo to the source of the Indus and Satluj.
  •  Flows parallel to Himalayas and after reaching the Namcha Barwa (7757 m)it takes ‘U-turn’ and enter India as the Dihang in Arunachal Pradesh.
  • In Assam, the Dihang is joined by major tributaries like the Dibang and Lohit to form the Brahmaputra.
  • In Tibet, river carries smaller volume of water and less silt as it is cold and dry area.
  • Brahmaputra has braided channel in its entire length in Assam and forms riverine islands.
  • During rainy season, river overflows it’s banks causing widespread devastation due to floods in Assam  Bangladesh
  •  Barahmaputra river is known as Tsang PO in Tibet and Jamuna in Bangladesh.

Physical Features of India Class 9 Notes

Peninsular Rivers

The Water divide in Peninsular India is formed by Western Ghats .Most of the rivers flow eastwards and drain into bay of Bengal and make deltas at their mouth while Narmada and Tapi are the only long west flowing rivers form estuaries. Drainage basin area of peninsular rivers are comparatively smaller in size

West Flowing Rivers

Narmada and Tapi  are two important west flowing rivers.Apart from it, Sabarmati,Mahi,Bharathpuzha and periyar.

The Narmada Basin:

  • originates in the Amarkantak hills in Madhya Pradesh.
  • Flows in a rift valley formed due to faulting
  •  passes through the picturesque Marble Rocks near Jabalpur and plung down  steep rocks at Dhuadhar Falls.
  •  Narmada basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
  • Narmada River Conservation Mission is undertaken by Madhya Pradesh by a scheme named Namami Devi Narmade.

The Tapi Basin

  • rises in the Satpura ranges in Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.
  • Its basin covers Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.

East Flowing Rivers

The Godavari Basin

  • the largest Peninsular river, having length of 1500 km.
  • Rises from the slopes of the Western Ghats in Nasik district of Maharashtra.
  • basin covers regions of Maharashtra(50 percent of total basin area), Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh.
  • Largest basin area among the peninsular rivers.
  •  It is often referred to as Dakshin Ganga
  •  tributaries including the Purna, Wardha, Pranhita, Manjra, Wainganga, and Penganga.

The Mahanadi Basin

  • Originate in the highlands of Chhattisgarh.
  •  flows for about 860 km through Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha.

The Krishna Basin

  • Rise from a spring near  Mahabaleshwar range.
  • have length of 1400 km make it second largest peninsular river
  • Basin area is shared by Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.
  • Tungabhadra,Koyana,Ghatprabha,Musi and Bhima are the tributaries.

The Kaveri Basin

  • Starts from the Brahmagiri range of the Western Ghats
  •  Length of about 760 km passes across Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil  Nadu
  • Amravati, Bhavani,Hemavati and Kabini are the main tributaries

Some east Flowing rivers are damodar,Brahmini,Baitarni and Subarnarekha .

Fact: Jog fall, second biggest waterfall is formed by Kaveri river and hydroelectricity generated by it supplied to Mysuru, Bengaluru and Kolar Gold Field.

Lakes

Types of Lakes

Seasonal Lake

They contain water during dry season like the lake in the basin of inland drainage of semi arid regions .Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan,a saltwater lake and seasonal in nature.

Lakes in Plains

  • Meandering river forms cut off that converts into ox-bow lake.
  • Split and bars form lagoon in coastal areas
  • Chilika lake,Pulicat lake and the Kolleru lake

Freshwater Lakes

  • Formed in Himalayan region when glaciers dug out a basin.
  • Wular lake , the largest freshwater lake is formed by the tectonic activity.
  • Wular lake ,Dal lake, Bhimtal, Nainital,Loktak Lake and Barapani are freshwater Lakes

Importance of Lakes

  • Help to regulate the flow of river
  • Prevents flooding of river during monsoon
  • Help to maintain the consistent flow of water  during dry season
  • Used for generating hydroelectricity
  • Moderates the climate of the surroundings
  • Maintain aquatic life and enhances natural beauty
  • Promote tourism and provide recreation to tourists.

Role of Rivers in the Economy

  • Basic natural resource essential for various human activities
  • Attracted settlers from ancient times for settlement that developed into cities.
  • Used for irrigation, navigation, hydroelectric power generation
  • Agriculture provides livelihood to majority of the population that is possible as river a source of irrigation.

River Pollution

  • Grow demands for domestic, municipal, industrial, and agricultural purposes affect the quality of river water
  •  heavy amount of untreated sewage, industrial effluents, and agricultural runoff laden with chemicals not only degrade water quality but also the cleansing capacity of the water .
  •  Increasing urbanisation also put pressure on proper disposal of garbage.

Chapter 3 Drainage Notes

Class 9 Chapter 3 Electoral Politics Notes

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Here,the Chapter 3 Electoral Politics Notes of Class 9 Civics are given that would help students to develop understanding of the election system,its process and role in democracy.These Class 9 Chapter 3 Electoral Politics Notes are very helpful for exam purpose to score high marks.

Chapter 3 Electoral Politics Notes Class 9 Civics

Why do we need election?

  • In a democracy people rule themselves but the rule of the people is not possible as all people cannot sit together at one place .
  • Every person doesn’t have time and knowledge to take decisions on all matters. Therefore people rule through elected representatives.
  • To ensure representatives to rule as per the wishes of the people,this requires a mechanism called election.

Election

Election is a mechanism or process by which person can choose their representatives at regular intervals and change them if they wish to do so.Therefore election are essential for for any representative democracy.In an election, the voters make many choices:

  • They can choose who will make laws for them.
  • They can choose who will form the government and take major decisions.
  • They can choose the party whose policies will guide the government and law-making.

What makes an election democratic?

The minimum conditions of a democratic election include the following points.

  • First, Everyone should be able to choose their own representative.
  • Second, Parties and candidates should be free to contest elections and should offer some real choice to the voters.
  • Third, Elections must be held regularly after every few years.
  • Fourth, the candidate preferred by the people should get elected.
  • Fifth,Elections should be conducted in a free and fair manner where people can choose as they really wish.

Is it good to have political competition

Election is a political competition in which several candidates or parties compete at the constituency level to make it democratic.

Demerits of electoral competition

  • It creates a sense of disunity and factionalism in every locality.
  • Parties and candidates use dirty tricks to win election
  • Electoral fight doesn’t allow sensible long term policies to be formulated.
  • Good people don’t come to serve the country due to unhealthy competition

Merits of Electoral Competition

  • Regular electoral competition provides incentives to political parties and leaders.
  • Political parties know that if they raise issues that people want to be raised, their popularity and chances of victory will increase in the next elections.
  • It improves the knowledge and character of political leaders.
  • If a political party is motivated only by the desire to be in power, despite that, it will be forced to serve the people.

What is our system of Election?

Election are held for Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha after every five years

after the term of all elected representatives come to an end.

General Election

When election are held in all constituencies at the same time, either on same day or within few days.This is called general election.

By Election

When election is held for one constituency to fill the vacancy caused by death or resignation of a member.

Electoral Constituencies

In India area based system of representation is used to elect representatives.

For purpose of election the country is divided into different areas,these areas are called electoral constituencies.

For Lok Sabha election: India is divided into 543 constituencies and each constituency elects one Member of Parliament (MP) to represent them in the national parliament.

For Assembly Constituencies: Each state in India is divided into a specific number of Assembly constituencies. Voters in these constituencies elect their representatives known as Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs). Each Parliamentary constituency has within it several assembly constituencies .

Local Bodies Elections: Similar principles applies to elections for Panchayats (village councils) and Municipalities (urban local bodies). Villages and towns are divided into smaller units called wards, which act as constituencies. Each ward elects one member to represent them in the local body.

Reserved Constituencies

Our constitution entitles every citizen to elect his/her representatives and to be elected as representative .

  • The makers of constitution made a system of reserved Constituencies for weaker sections like SCs(Scheduled Castes),STs( Scheduled Tribes) and OBCs(other backward castes).
  • This was done to give equal chance to weaker sections in decision making and avoided open competition with general category who are influential and resourceful.
  • In total 543 seats of Lok Sabha,84 seats are reserved for scheduled castes and 47 seats for scheduled Tribes.
  • This number is in proportion to their share in total population
  • This system of reservation is applicable to Lok Sabha,Legislative Assemblies and gram panchayats and municipalities and municipal corporation (in urban areas).
  • One third seats are reserved for women in rural and urban local bodies.

Voter’s List

A list of those who are eligible to vote in a democratic election are prepared, this list is called the Electoral Roll and is commonly known as the Voter’s list.

  • It is prepared much before election and keep updated by adding new voters and deleting those voters who are died and migrated after every five years
  • Citizens who are above 18 years of age are eligible to vote irrespective of their religion, caste or gender, everyone is allowed to give their vote.on the principle of universal adult franchise
  • Some criminal and person with unsound mind can be denied the right to vote in rare situations.
  • A new system of election photo identity card(EPIC) has been introduced but this card is not compulsory for voting, voters can use other proof of identity.

Nomination of Candidates

For an election to be democratic, there are almost no restrictions on anyone to contest an election. Any citizen who wants to be a candidate needs to have a minimum age of 25 years.

  • If anyone has a criminal background, then there are restrictions but it is applicable in very extreme cases.
  • The candidate who is nominated by party and get the party’s symbol and party’ nomination is considered party ‘ticket’.
  • Contesting candidate also deposit some money as security deposit .

According to the direction of Supreme Court, every candidate now has to make a legal declaration, details:

  • Any serious case pending against the candidate.
  • details of assets and liabilities of the candidates and his/her family
  • Educational qualifications of the candidate

These information help voters to make decisions while casting the vote to choose right candidate.

Election Campaign

The purpose of election campaign is to give people a chance to choose representatives the government and the policies they prefer.

  • Campaign is done for a two weeks
  • Candidates and political parties can contact their voters to mobilise their support through meetings.
  • Political parties try to focus on some big issues to get public attention.

Successful Slogans given by different parties

  • Garibi Hatao  by Congress in 1971 Lok Sabha Election
  • Save Democracy by Janata Party under Jayaprakash Narayan in 1977 to undo and restore civil liberties during emergency.
  • Land to the Tiller in West Bengal by Left Front in 1977 assembly elections.
  • Protect the Self Respect of the Telugus used by T.Rama Rao of TDP in 1983 assembly election in Andhra Pradesh

According to election law,no party or candidate can

  • Bribe or  threaten voters
  • Appeal voters in the name of caste or religion
  • Use government resources for election campaign
  • Spend more than 25 lakhs ina constituency in lok sabha election or 10 lakhs in a constituency in Assembly election

Model code of Conduct

According to it,no party or candidate  during election campaign can

  • Use any place of worship
  • Use govt vehicles, resources and officials
  • Ministers shall not lay foundation stone of any projects,take any big policy decisions etc.

Polling and counting of Votes

The final stage of election is

  • election day ,when voters cast their votes.Every person in voter’s list can vote nearby polling booths which are generally govt building or schools.
  • Earlier voters used to cast votes by ballot paper.

Ballot Paper – A sheet of paper on which names of contesting candidate along with party name and symbols are listed.

  • Now voting is done by EVM(Electronic Voting Machine)

EVM – A machine shows name names of contesting candidates and party symbols allotted by election commission. Voters press the button against the name of candidate to whom he wants to give vote.

  • Once polling is completed, all EVMs are sealed and taken to the safe place. All EVMs are opened on counting day and agent of each candidate are present to ensure fair counting.
  • In general election, counting of votes are usually done in all the constituencies at the same time on the same day.
  • Within few hours of counting, all constituencies results are declared and it clears who will form the government.

What makes Elections in India Democratic

Independent Election Commission

  • In India, elections are conducted by the Election Commission (EC),
  • It is independent as judiciary and it has its own Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) appointed by the President.
  • CEC is not answerable to president or the government for its decisions.

Powers of Election Commission

  • EC can take decisions on every aspects of conduct and control of elections from the announcement of elections to declaration of result.
  • It implements code of conduct and punish any party or candidate who violates it.
  • EC can orders the government to follow guidelines to prevent any misuse of government power.
  • On election duty, govt officials  work under the control of EC only.

When election officials come to know that polling was not fair at some booths or even an entire constituency,it can order a repoll of that constituency.

Popular Participation

People’s participation with enthusiasm is a method to check the quality of election process

  • People’s participation is usually measured by voter turnout. Turnout means the percent of eligible voters who actually cast their vote .
  • In India the poor, illiterate and underprivileged people vote in large proportion whereas in western countries the rich and privileged sections vote in large proportion.
  • Common people in India feel that they can pressure on political parties and their vote matters in the way things run in the country.
  • Interest of voters in election related activities has been increasing over the years.More than half of the people identified themselves as being close to one or the other party.

Acceptance of Outcome

 Outcome itself is the final test of free and fairness election.If election is not democratic then ruling party do not lose elections.

Outcome of India’s election

  • The ruling parties routinely lose elections in India both at national and state level.
  • In India half of the the sitting MPs or MLAs lose elections.
  • Candidate who spend a lot of money on buying votes and with criminal connections often lose elections.
  • Electoral outcomes are usually accepted as people’s verdict by the defeated party.

Challenges to Free and Fair Elections

A few candidates may win purely on the basis of money power and unfair means but overall verdict of general election still reflects the popular preference.

  • Candidate and parties enjoy a big and unfair advantage over smaller parties and independent.
  • Candidates with criminal connection have been able to push others out of the electoral race and to secure a ticket from major parties.
  • Some families tend to dominate political parties; tickets are distributed to relatives from these families.
  • Election offer little choice to ordinary citizens.
  • Smaller parties and independent candidates suffer a huge disadvantage compared to bigger parties.

Class 9 Civics Chapter 2 Constitutional Design Notes

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In this article there is a discussion of class 9 Civics Chapter 2 Constitutional Design Notes which cover every topic of chapter 2 constitutional Design class 9 political science.It is comprehensively explained to develop understanding of students about every topic related to how constitution is formed of India.

Apartheid

 Apartheid is a system of racial discrimination unique to South Africa imposed by white Europeans through its official policy of ill treatment against blacks.

The system of apartheid divided the people and labelled them on the basis of their skin colour. The white rulers treated all non-whites includes blacks, coloured and Indians as inferiors. The non-whites did not have voting rights.

 Segregation

The policy of separation of all services like school,buses, churches, toilets etc and residential areas of whites and blacks.Black were forbidden from living in white areas and could work only if they are permitted by whites.

African National Congress

The African National Congress (ANC) was the umbrella organisation that led the struggle against the policies of segregation and opposed apartheid.Even sensitive whites joined ANC and several countries denounced apartheid as unjust and racist .

Nelson Mandela was tried for treason by the white South African government  sentenced to life imprisonment in 1964 for daring to oppose the apartheid regime in the country.

Towards a new Constitution

  • As the protests and struggles against apartheid increased, the blacks could no longer be kept under the rule of the government through repression.
  • The white regime changed its policies and discriminatory laws were repealed.
  • Ban on political parties and restrictions on the media were lifted.
  • Nelson Mandela was released after 28 years in the Robben Island Prison. The apartheid government came to an end on midnight of 26 April 1994, paving the way for the formation of a multi-racial government.

After the emergence of the new democratic South Africa,black people and whites were appealed by black leaders to build a new South Africa based on equality of all races and men and women,on democratic values , social justice and human rights and sat together to form a common constitution.

This constitution gave its citizens the most extensive rights available in any country. Together, they decided that in the search for a solution to the problems, nobody should be excluded.

A state denounced by entire world as undemocratic till recently is now seen as model of democracy. It was the determination of all people of South Africa to work together,to transform bitter experiences into the binding glue of a rainbow nation.

Why do we need a constitution

The oppresser (whites) and oppressed (blacks) were planning to live together to ensure that democratic principles of majority rule would not be comprised and majority would not take away the property of white minority.

The only way to build and maintain trust is to write down some basic rules how rulers are to be chosen, what the elected government are empowered to do and what they cannot.They agreed on some set of basic rules called constitution.

Constitution making is not unique to South Africa.Every country has diverse groups of people who have differences of opinion and interests so it requires some basic rules that everyone would abide by .Thus,these rules are supreme and no government would be able to ignore these.This set of rules is called constitution

Constitution

Constitution is a written document that has a set of basic rules that are accepted by all people together as supreme law of the country that determines the relationship between people and government.

Advantages of Constitution

  • First, it generates a degree of trust and coordination that is necessary for different kinds of people to live together.
  • Second, it specifies how the government will be constituted and who will have the power to take which decisions.
  • Third, it lays down limits on the powers of the government and tells us what the rights of the citizens are.
  • Fourth, it expresses the aspirations of the people about creating a good society.

All countries that have constitutions are not necessarily democratic. But all countries that are democratic will have constitutions.

Making of the Indian Constitution

The making of the constitution for a huge and diverse country like India was not an easy task as people were emerging from subjects to citizens and born through the partition on the basis of religious differences.

Second, British had left it to the ruler of princely states to decide whether they wanted to emerge with India or with Pakistan or remain independent .The makers of the constitution had anxieties about the present and future of the country.

Class 9 Chapter 3 Electoral Politics Notes

The Path to Constitution

Unlike South Africa, Constitution makers of India didn’t have to create consensus about what a democratic India should like ,it evolved during the freedom struggle.

National movement is not merely a struggle against foreign rule but also to rejuvenate our country and to transform our society and politics.

In 1928, Motilal Nehru and eight other Congress leaders drafted a constitution for India, and In 1931, the resolution at the Karachi session of the Indian National Congress dwelt on how independent India’s Constitution should look. Both these documents included features such as Universal Adult Franchise, the Right to Freedom and Equality, and to protect the rights of minorities in the constitution of independent India. These basic values were accepted by all leaders much before the Constituent Assembly met to deliberate on the Constitution.

The experience gained by Indians in the working of legislative institutions proved to be useful for setting up its own institutions and working in them.

The Indian constitution adopted many institutional details and procedures from colonial laws like the Government of India Act 1935. Many of our leaders were inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution, the practice of parliamentary democracy in Britain and the Bill of Rights in the US to ensure social and economic equality.

Constituent Assembly

  • The drafting of the constitution was done by an assembly of elected representatives called the Constituent Assembly.
  • Elections to the Constituent Assembly were held in July 1946, and its first meeting was held in December 1946. Soon after, the country was divided into India and Pakistan and the Constituent Assembly was also divided into the Constituent Assembly of India and of Pakistan.
  •  The Constituent Assembly that wrote the Indian constitution had 299 members.
  • The Assembly adopted the Constitution on 26 November 1949, but it came into effect on 26 January 1950.
  • To mark this day, we celebrate January 26 as Republic Day every year.

Reasons to accept Constitution  even today

  • The Constitution does not reflect the views of its members alone. It expresses a broad consensus of its time.
  • The second reason for accepting the Constitution is that the Constituent Assembly represented members from different languages groups, castes, classes, religions and occupation means Constituent Assembly represented the people of India.
  • Finally, the manner in which the Constituent Assembly worked gives sanctity to the Constitution. The Constituent Assembly worked in a systematic, open and consensual manner.
  • No large social group or political party has ever questioned the legitimacy of the constitution

Drafting of the Constitution

  • A drafting committee chaired by Dr B.R.Ambedkar prepared a draft constitution who debated and agreed upon basic rules.
  • The 299 member of constituent Assembly discussed draft constitution clause by clause by deliberating 114 days spread over three years.
  • These debates are preserved in 12 bulky volumes that provide rationale behind every provision of the constitution used to interpret the meaning of constitution

Philosophy of the Constitution

  • Values that inspired and guided the freedom struggle and were, in turn, nurtured by it formed the foundation for India’s democracy..
  • These values are embedded in the preamble of the Indian Constitution.These values are sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic, republic, justice, liberty, equality and fraternity.
  • The constitution begins with a short statement of basic values called preamble that provide a standard to examine and evaluate any law and action of govt.It is the soul of the Constitution.

Institutional Design

  • A constitution is not merely an arrangement of values and philosophy.
  • It is long and detailed document that to be amended time to time to keep updated in accordance with with people’s aspirations and change in society. These changes are called constitutional amendments.
  • Constitution lays down procedure for choosing person,who will have power to choose and take decisions.
  • It puts limits to government’s actions and protect citizen’s rights.

Class 9 Economics Chapter 2 People as Resource Notes

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Cbse class 9 Economics chapter 2 People as Resource Notes are presented in an inclusive manner so that it could cover every topic of Chapter 2 People as Resource Class 9 Economics NCERT.It would help in clear understanding of students that would be helpful in the exam preparation to achieve good scores.

‘People

‘People as Resource’ is a way of referring to a country’s working people In terms of their existing productive skills and abilities

Like other resources, population is also resource known as human resources as it possesses required skills, abilities and knowledge which are used in the production of goods and services.

Population of the country can become an asset

Human capital

Human capital is the stock of Skill and productive knowledge embodied in human.

When the existing ‘human resource’ is further developed by becoming more educated and healthy, we call it ‘human capital formation’ that adds to the productive power of the country just like ‘physical capital formation’

Investment in human capital (through education, training, medical Care) yields a return just like investment In physical capital. This can be seen directly in the form of higher incomes earned because of higher productivity of the more educated or the better trained persons, as well as the higher productivity of healthier people.

 The various activities have been classified into three main sectors i.e.,

Primary, secondary and tertiary.

Primary Sector includes agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, fishing, poultry farming, mining and quarrying.

Manufacturing is included in the Secondary sector.

Trade, transport,Communication, banking, education,Health, tourism, services, insurance, etc.are included in the tertiary sector.

Economic Activities

The activities in this sector result in the production of goods and services. These activities add value to the national Income. These activities are called economic activities.

Economic activities have two parts —

Market activities and Non-market activities.

Market activities– It involve remuneration to anyone who performs i.e., activity performed for pay Or profit. These include production of goods Or services, including government service.

Non-market activities are the production for self-consumption. These can be consumption and processing of primary product and own account production of fixed assets

Due to historical and cultural reasons ,there is a division of labour between men and women in the family. Women generally look after domestic chores and men work in the fields

Quality of Population

The quality of population depends upon the literacy rate, health of a person indicated by life expectancy and skill formation acquired by the people of the country. The quality of the poulation ultimately decides the growth rate of the country. Literate and healthy population are an asset.

Importance of Education

  • It opened new horizon for him, provided new aspiration and developed values of life.
  • Education contributes towards the growth of society also.
  • It enhances the national income, cultural richness and Increases the efficiency of governance
  • Providing universal access, retention and quality in elementary education with a special focus on girls

Govt Initiatives in Education

  • Establishment of pace setting schools like Navodaya Vidyalaya in each district
  • Literacy rate has increased from 18% in 1951 to 85% in 2018.
  • Expenditure on education as percentage of GDP has increased from 0.64% in 1951 to 3.1% in 2019-20
  • Literacy among males is 16.1% higher than females and in urban areas 14.1 % higher than rural areas
  • Literacy rate in Kerala is 94% and lowest literacy rate is 62% which is in Bihar
  • Huge expansion of schools is diluted by poor quality of schooling and high dropout rates.

Class 9 Economics Poverty as a Challenge Notes|Class 9 Economics Notes

Sarva  Shiksha Abhiyan

It is a significant step towards providing elementary education to all children in the age group of 6-14 years by 2010 and is time bound initiative of central govt in partnership with states, local government and community for achieving the goal of universalisation of elementary education.

Mid Day Meal Scheme

It was implemented to encourage attendance and retention of children and improve their nutritional status of the children.

12th Plan and education

  • Gross Enrolment ratio in higher education in the age group of 18 to 23 years is 27% in 2020.
  • Focus on increasing access, quality , adoption of state specific curriculum modification,vocationalisation and networking on the use of information technology.
  • Focus on distance education, convergence of formal and informal, distance and IT education.

Health

Health is an important criteria for realising one’s well being, potential and ability to fight against illness.
Our national policy too aims at improving the accessibility of healthcare, family welfare and nutritional service with a special focus on the underprivileged segment of the population.

India has developed health infrastructure and manpower at primary, secondary and tertiary sector in the government.

  • Life expectancy has increased to 69.4 in 2016
  • Infant mortality rate (IMR) has come to 36 in 2020
  • Crude birth rate reduced to 20.0 in 2018
  • Death rate reduced to 6.2 in 2018

Govt has focused on different indicators of the health includes longevity,childcare,mothercare  which are indicators of the quality of life  marked by self confidence.

Infant mortality rate – It means death of a child below one year of age.

Birth rate – The number of babies born for every 1000 people during a particular period of time .

Death rate – The number of people per thousand who die during a particular period of time.

Unemployment

Unemployment is said to exist when people who are willing to work at the going wages cannot find jobs.

Criteria not to considered unemployed

  •  Out of the Working age group  15- 59
  • Not willing to work even in working age

Nature of unemployment

  • In case of rural areas,there is seasonal and disguised unemployment.
  • Urban areas have mostly educated unemployment.

Seasonal unemployment

Seasonal unemployment happens when people are not able to find jobs during some months of the year.

Disguised Unemployment

This usually happens among family members engaged in agricultural activity.The work requires the service of five people but engages eight people. These three people are extra and If three people arez  dremoved the productivity of the field will not decline.

Educated unemployment

Educated unemployment is common phenomenon of urban areas.

Unemployment of graduate and post graduate is more than among matriculation.

Disadvantage of unemployment

  • Wastage of manpower resource
  • Feeling of hopelessness and despair among youth
  • Liability for the economy
  • Dependence on working population increases
  • Quality of life of an individual as well as society get affected
  • General decline in health status and rising dropout from school system
  • Indicator of depressed economy

Employment in India

A large number of people with low income and productivity are counted as employed but earning is not adequate and seems force not to sit idle irrespective of earning potential keeps them on bare subsistence level.

Employment structure in primary Sector is characterised by self employment.Disguised unemployment in agriculture sector does not reduce poverty, eventually surplus labour from village migrate to cities in search of jobs.

  • Agriculture is the most labour absorbing sector of the economy
  • India secondary sector, small scale manufacturing is the most labour absorbing
  • In service sector,new services are emerging like biotechnology, information technology and so on.

,Class 9 Economics chapter 2 People as Resource Notes are very helpful for proper understanding of chapter 2 class 9 Economics Ncert.

Physical Features of India Class 9 Notes

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This article has explained the chapter 2 geography physical features of India Class 9 Notes which will enhance the knowledge of students that would boost his/her confidence to achieve good grades in his class 9 Social Science.

Physical Features of India Class 9 Notes

Here,there is a comprehensive discussion of class 9 geography chapter 2 Physical Features of India which is an important part of the SST class 9 geography syllabus.In this post the different Physiographic divisions of India namely Himalayan Mountains, Northern Plains,Peninsular Plateau, Coastal Plains and Islands Groups are explained in an attractive manner that would make easy for students to understand the chapter 2 Class 9 Physical Features of India Ncert.

Chapter 2 Geography Physical Features of India Class 9 Notes

India is a vast country with varied landforms like mountains , plains, desert, plateaus and islands and  display great physical variation. From the geographical point of view, Peninsular Plateau is an ancient landmass and one of the stable land blocks.Himalayas and Northern Plains are the most recent landforms. The Himalayan mountain has  youthful topography and is unstable zone with High peaks, deep valleys and fast flowing rivers. The Northern Plains are formed of alluvial deposits and peninsular plateau is composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks with gently rising and wide valleys.

Major Physiographic Divisions

The physical features of India is grouped under the following Physiographic divisions which are given below

  1. The Himalayan Mountains
  2. The Northern Plains
  3. The Peninsular Plateau
  4. The Indian Desert
  5. The Coastal Plains
  6. The Islands

The  Himalayan Mountains

  • Geologically young and structurally fold mountains spread over northern border of India.
  • Ranges run from west to east from Indus to Brahmaputra river
  • Loftiest and rugged mountain barrier of the world.
  • Cover a distance of about 2400 Km
  • Width varies from 400 Km in Kashmir to 150 Km in Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Altitudes are greater in eastern than western half.

The Himalayas consists of three parallel ranges in its longitudinal extent

Greater Himalaya or Inner Himalaya or Himadri

 It is the most continuous range, consisting of the highest peaks with an average height of 6000 metres. The core of this Himalayan region is made of granite and folds are asymmetrical in nature.

Lesser Himalayas or the Himachal

 The rugged mountain region to the south of the Himadri is known as the Lesser Himalayas or Himachal. The altitude of this mountain range varies between 3700 and 4500 meters whereas the average width is 50 kilometres. Important ranges  like Pir Panjal, Dhaula Dhar, and Mahabharat, of which the Pir Panjal range forms the longest and the most important range exist in Lesser Himalaya. This Himalaya is famous for hill stations.

The Shiwaliks

The outermost range of the Himalayas is known as the Shiwaliks whose altitude varies between 900 and 1100 metres and extends over a width of 10-50 kilometres. The term “Duns” refers to the longitudinal valley that spans between the Lesser Himalayas and the Shiwaliks. Some of the well-known Duns is DehraDun, Kotli Dun, and Patli Dun.These valley are covered with gravel and alluvium.

The Himalayas have also been divided into regions from west to east:

  • Punjab Himalaya or Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya – between Indus and Satluj river
  • Kumaon Himalaya – between Satluj and Kali river
  • Nepal Himalaya – between Kali and Teesta river
  • Assam Himalaya – between Teesta and Dihang river

The Brahmaputra marks the eastern most boundary of the Himalayas .The Himalayas curve sharply to the south beyond the Dihang gorge and spread along India’s eastern border, known as the Purvachal, or Eastern hills and mountains. Purvachal is comprised of the Patkai, Naga, Manipur, and Mizo hills.

The Northern Plains

  • The northern plain has formed by the interplay of India’s three major river systems, namely the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra, as well as their tributaries.
  • Formed of alluvial soil
  • Deposition of alluvium in vast basin lying at foothills of Himalayas forms this plain.
  • Spreads over an area of 7 lakhs sq km and it is 2400 km in length and 240-320 km in width.
  • With rich soil cover, favourable climate, adequate water supply,this Physiographic division is agriculturally productive and densely part of India.

Northern Plain is divided into three sections

  • Western part – Punjab Plains formed by Indus and its tributaries and is dominated by doab.
  • North-  Ganga plains extends between Ghaggar and Teesta river in Haryana Delhi,UP,Bihar, partly Jharkhand and West Bengal
  • East- Brahmaputra Plain lies particularly in Assam

According to the variation in relief features , Northern Plains is divided into four regions

  1. Bhabhar

A narrow Belt of about 8 to 16 km in width lying parallel to the slope of Shiwaliks .All rivers disappear in bhabhar.

  • Terai

South of bhabhar and streams and rivers re-emerge and create a wet,swampy and marshy land.It was a thickly forested region full of wildlife but it has been cleared for agriculture.

  • Bhanger

         Largest part of plain formed of older alluvium lies above the floodplain.The soil contains calcareous deposits known as kankar.

  • Khadar

The newer, younger deposits of floodplains that are renewed every year and are fertile so ideal for intensive agriculture

The Peninsular Plateau

  • Tableland composed of old crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks
  • Formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land and is part of the oldest landmass
  • Has broad and shallow valley and rounded hills
  • consists of two broad divisions namely Central Highlands and Deccan Plateau
  • Black soil area known as Deccan trap
  • Volcanic origin so rock is igneous

Central Highlands

  • Lying to the north of Narmada river covering major area of Malwa plateau and is known as Central Highlands
  • Vindhaya range is bounded by Satpura range on the south and Aravali on the northwest
  • Western extension of highlands touches sandy and Rocky desert of Rajasthan
  • Wider in west and narrower in east
  • Chambal,Sind,Betwa and Ken flows from southwest to northeast indicating the slope

Deccan Plateau

  • Triangular landmass lies to the south of river Narmada
  • Satpura range with its broad based in north while Mahadev,Kaimur hills and Maikal range forms its eastward extension
  • An extension of this plateau is in northeast known as meghalaya, Karbi Anglong plateau and north cachar hills
  • Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats are the western and eastern edges of Deccan Plateau

Western Ghats

  • Lies parallel to the western coast
  • Have continuous and can be crossed through passes only
  • Average elevation is 900-1600 metres
  • Height increases from north to south
  • highest peaks include Anai Mudi(2695m) and Doda Betta (2697m)

Eastern Ghats

  • Stretch from Mahanadi valley to Nilgiri in South
  • Are discontinuous and irregular and dissected by rivers
  • Mahendergiri (1501m) is the highest peak in the eastern ghats
  • Shevroy Hills and Javedi Hills are to the southeast of Eastern Ghats

Indian Desert

  • Lies towards the western margin of the Aravali hills
  • Undulating sandy plain covered with sand dunes.
  • Receives low rainfall below 150 mm per year
  • Has arid climate with low vegetation.
  • Luni is the only large river in this region

Barchans( crescent -shaped dunes) cover large area but longitudinal dunes are more prominent near India- Pakistan border.

The Coastal Plains

It is a narrow strip of  plain lies between Arabian Sea and Western Ghats on the western coast known as Western Coastal Plains which are narrow and between Eastern Ghats and Bay of Bengal on the eastern coast known as eastern coastal plains which are wide and level

West Coastal Plains is divided into three parts

  • Konkan (Mumbai -Goa) Plain – Northern part
  • Kannad plain- Central part
  • Malabar Coast – southern part

East Coastal Plains

  • Northern Circar
  • Coromandel Coast

Large rivers such as Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri form large delta on eastern coast.

 Chilika Lake is the largest saltwater lake lies in Odisha to the south of Mahanadi is an important lake along eastern coast.

The Islands

India has two groups of islands

  • Lakshadweep Islands
    •  Lying close to Malabar Coast of Kerala
    • Composed of small coral islands
    • Has an area of  32 sq km
    • Kavaratti is the administrative headquarter
    • Earlier they were known as Laccadive,Minicoy and Amindive and in 1973 these were named as Lakshadweep
    • Have great diversity of flora and fauna
    • Pitti Islands,an unhabitated has a bird sanctuary

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

  • Elongated chain of islands located in the Bay of Bengal
  • Andaman lies in north and Nicobar lies in South
  • Bigger in size and are more numerous and scattered
  • These islands are elevated portion of submarine mountains
  • Lie close to equator and experience equatorial climate and has thick forest cover
  • Have great diversity of flora and fauna
The different Physiographic divisions  highlights unique features of each region.
  • Mountains are major source of water and forest wealth
  • Northern Plains are the granaries of the country and become base for civilisation
  • Plateaus are storehouse of minerals that are important for industrial development of the country
  • Coastal Plains and Islands groups provide  for fishing and port activities

The diverse physical features of land have immense future possibilities of development. Each region complement the other and makes the country rich in natural resources.

Class 9 Chapter 1 What is Democracy Why Democracy Notes

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Class 9 Chapter What is Democracy? why Democracy notes is concisely explained so students would have knowledge of basic concepts related to democracy,meaning and features of democracy, merits and demerits of democratic form of government, reason to consider best form of government etc. It will be very helpful to develop good understanding about the basic concepts discussed in class 9 political science chapter 1 what is democracy? Why democracy? Notes.

Class 9 Chapter 1 What is Democracy why Democracy Notes

In chapter 1 Political science class 9 Notes, democracy is described as the best form of government based on many factors that’s the reason many countries changed from monarchies and dictatorship to democracy. It means democracy is widely accepted by most countries of the world as it gives certain rights to citizens which are not enjoyed in non democratic government and it makes differences between democratic and non democratic government. Class 9 Chapter 1 What is Democracy Why Democracy notes is explained in detail for proper understanding of democracy.

Differences between democratic and non democratic Government

A democratic government is elected directly by the people, This government is of the people, for the people and by the people so ultimately it is people’s government but in non democratic, rulers are Inheritedly from the Royal family which is ruling for long and people have no right to elect and they are bound by the rules of government. Example of non democratic government is Pinochet’s rule in Chile, Communists rule in Poland where rulers ruled like a dictator or military officers where no one could question the government.

Simple Definition

Democracy– Democracy is a form of government in which rulers are elected by the people.

Every country’s government in contemporary world wants to be called a democracy, even if it is not so. Only holding an election doesn’t make any country democratic so there is a need to understand between a democratic and one that pretends to be democratic. Democracy is people’s rule, it raises many questions in our mind

Who are rulers and official that are allowed to take decisions?

What kind of election is considered democratic?

Who are the people who are entitled to elect rulers? What kind of a form of government is democracy?

Features of Democracy.

1.Major decisions by elected Leaders

In Pakistan General Pervez Musharraf declared himself as the chief executive of the country by leading a military coup in October 1999 and changed his designation to President. He held referendum based on fraud malpractices and in August 2002 he issued a legal framework order that amended Constitution of Pakistan. After it, the final decision making power was in the hands of General Pervez Musharraf himself and army officials instead of rulers (representatives )elected by the people of Pakistan for the provincial and national Assembly. This happens in many dictatorship and monarchies where real power is with those who are not elected.

This is the first feature– In a democracy the final decision making power must rest with those elected elected by the people.

2.Free and fair electoral Competition

In China, election are held regularly for electing country’s parliament called Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui(National People’s congress) which has power to appoint president. Before election, candidates needs to take approval from Chinese communist party to contest election or he be a member of any of 8 allied parties.The government is always formed by Communist Party. Mexico after it’s independence in 1930 holds election after every 6 years even never under military or dictator’s rule. Despite it until 2000 every election is won by only one party called PRI(Institutional Revolutionary Party). This party pressurize government employees to attend party meeting, teachers are instructed to force parents for vote and media criticise only opposition party and sometimes pooling booths get shifted in last minutes which made difficult for people to cast votes. In these two examples, we have seen china doesn’t offer any other political alternative and Mexico doesn’t make possible to change existing rulers that shows elections are undemocratic.

The second feature– democracy must be based on a free and fair election where those currently in power have a fair chance of losing.

3. One person one vote one value

The concept of universal adult franchise gives political equality to all citizens of the country without discrimination based on gender, religion, caste, region and language etc. But many instances of denial of equal right to vote. Until 2015,saudi Arabia women didn’t have right to voteIn Estonia, Russian minority find it difficult to get right to voteIn Fiji, indigenous Fiji has more value of votevthan Indian Fijis. All these instances show that political equality is denied to people.

Class 9 Civics Chapter 2 Constitutional Design Notes

The third feature– In a democracy, each adult citizen must have one vote and each vote must have one value.

4. Rule of Law and respect for Right

Rule of law says that everybody is equal in the eyes of law and nobody is above the law and all laws apply equally to all citizens of the country. In Zimbabwe, ZANU PF, the party that led freedom struggle movement ,after independence it got popular support and its leader Robert Mugabe always became president after every election. Over the years, his government changed Constitution to make himself less accountable to the people which is an important feature of democracy. He made illegal to criticize his government and controlled radio, television and newspapers that opposed government and even ignored courts judgement. All these things show that popular approval is not necessary in a democracy, popular leader can be autocratic. It is equally important to look that govt give sufficient room for normal political activity like state should respect some basic rights of the citizens like freedom to think, to criticize, to form association and take other political action.

So, the fourth and final feature– a democratic government rules within limits set by constitutional law and citizens rights.

Summary Definition

Democracy- Democracy is a form of government in which rulers are elected by the people.
The key features explain every word of a definition of democracy which are as follows-

  • Rulers elected by the people take all the major decisions
  • Elections offer a choice and fair opportunity to the people to change the current rulers
  • This choice and opportunity is available to all people on an equal basis
  • The exercise of this choice leads to a government limited by basic rules of the constitution and citizens’ rights

Why Democracy?
Argument against democracy

  • Leaders keep changing in a democracy leading to instability.
  • Democracy is all about political competition and power play, leaving no scope for morality.
  • Many people have to be consulted in a democracy, which leads to delays.
  • Elected leaders do not know the best interest of the people, resulting in bad decisions.
  • Democracy leads to corruption since it is based on electoral competition.
  • Ordinary people don’t know what is good for them; they should not decide anything.

From these arguments, we can see that democracy of the kind we see may not be the ideal form of government. However, we will see if democracy is better than other forms of government that are there for us to choose from.

Arguments in Favour of Democracy

A democractic government is a better form of government because it is more accountable form of government
A democractic government has to respond to the needs of the people as democractic government faces criticism, opposition of people, media and organization but non democractic government is not answerable to anyone , it depends upon the ruler’s wish whether he wants to take decisions regarding any problems or not.
Eg China faced famine of 1958-1961 in which almost 3 crores people died but no large famine is faced in an independent India as it is democratic and has multiparty system but China has only one party system.

Democracy improves the quality of decision making
It is based on consultation and discussion where number of people’s heads put together to point out possible mistakes and reduces the chances of rash and irresponsible decisions despite they take more time as it may affect the whole country.

Democracy provides a method to deal with differences and conflicts
India has complex social diversity where people of different castes, religion, region, language reside and have differences of opinions, interests and preferences that can cause clashes of one group with other groups. In this situations, whichever group is powerful will dominate and dictate its terms on minority that would lead to resentment and unhappiness and difficult to live together for long. Here, democracy provides the peaceful solution to keep country together by respecting the rights of every society like fundamental rights.

Democracy enhances the dignity of the citizens
Democracy is not about what democracy does to the government , it is about what democracy does to the citizens. Democracy is based on the principle of political equality on recognizing that poorest and least educated has same status as rich and educated.

Democracy is better than other forms of government because it allows us to correct its own mistakes
In a democracy, if people mistakenly choose wrong representatives then this mistake can be corrected after every five years if rulers doesn’t change his decisions which is not possible in non democratic government.

Hence, democracy is not the solution to all problems, it offers better chances of a good decision. It respects people’s own wishes and respect their rights and dignity and give chances to correct their own mistakes. So, democracy is considered the best form of government.

Broader Meaning of Democracy

Here, democracy is defined in a limited and descriptive sense. It helps us to identify a set of minimal conditions that every democracy must have all over the world. In contemporary time, every country adopt a representative democracy in which all people do not rule, their representative is allowed to rule on behalf of the majority of the people. This model of democracy is followed because of the reasons given below

Modern democracies involve such a large number of people that it is physically impossible for them to sit together and take a collective decision.
Even if they could, the citizen does not have the time, the desire or the skills to take part in all the decisions.
But these conditions doesn’t allow us to distinguish between a democracy and good democracy.

The word democracy is not used only for government, it is applied for organization, family, society, class etc. It means democracy is also a principle that has crucial role in every sphere of life. It means a democratic decisions always involves consultation with and consent of all those who are affected by its decisions.

Thus, democracy is an ideal standard that all democratic countries must aim to become but it is difficult to get any country in the world which is true democratic. True democracy means that democracy where no corruption, no poverty, equality in all aspects .
Conclusion– The common form of democracy in today’s world is rule through people’s elected representatives who have final decision making power and follow minimal and ideal standard that can distinguish between a minimal democracy and good democracy. And, good democracy depends on the active political participation by all the citizens.

Class 9 Economics Chapter 1 The Story of Village Palampur Notes

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Class 9 Economics Chapter 1 The story of Village Palampur Notes

class 9 Economics Chapter 1 The Story of Village Palampur notes deals with many economic concepts that are important for proper understanding of the economic system. It discusses about the type of economic activity and methods of farming.

Introduction

Palampur is a hypothetical village that is well developed in various aspects. It has well connected roads, transportation, one public schools, private dispensary, government primary health centres and is connected to towns for the availability of various things required for consumption. Almost 450 families of different castes live here in which 80% are high castes and other includes lower castes like scheduled caste.

Organisation of Production
Production is a complex process in which various inputs are arranged like land, labour and capital to produce output or product and services that human wants so production is organized by the arrangement of four factors of production.

  • The first is land and other natural resources such as water, forest and minerals
  • The second is labour which are of various types like unskilled, semi skilled and skilled . It depends on industry which kind of labour is required.
  • Third is physical capital which is subdivided into fixed and working capital
  • . Fixed capital – Tools,machines, buildings which are purchased and sustain for long period of time like 10 to 15 years are fixed capital and are essential base for production.
  • Working Capital- Production requires raw materials and money in hand to keep production process running and can be used to make payment for the purchasing of materials. It is used to increase production so that supply can be maintained according to demand.
  • Fourth is human capital and enterprise who put together land, labour and physical capital with his skills and knowledge.
  • So every production is organised by combining land, labour, physical capital and human capital which are known as factors of production.

Land
Land is a fixed natural resources means it can neither be added or substracted which provides livelihood to almost 75% people who are directly or indirectly dependent on farming. As we all know population is increasing day by day but not land . Now the question arise how production can be increased with limited land. It can be increaed either wastelands is converted into farmlands or by adopting different methods of farming.

There are two methods which are adopted to increase farm production to maintain the food requirement which are given below-Methods to increase production

1. Multicropping– When two or more crops are grown on a same piece of land during a year is known as multicropping.

2. Modern farming methods– When farming is done with HYVs seeds, fertilizers, chemical, pesticides and good good irrigation system that increase yield of a fieldf manifold.

Earlier, farming was done with traditional seeds, cow dung and other natural manure that gave less yield. The green revolution of 1960s introduced the farmers to cultivation of wheat and rice using HYVs (modern farming methods) that was tried first by the farmers if Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh that gave more field and generated a large surplus of production of wheat and rice.

Instead of traditional and simple tools, farmers bought modern farm machinery like tractors, combine, machines etc that made work simple and fast. In an agricultural year, different crops are grown in different different season that are listed below.

There are mainly two seasons- kharif and Rabi


1.Kharif – This season starts with the onset of monsoon means July when crops are sown like jowar, bajra, paddy and cotton etc. and harvested in October.


2.Rabi– This crop season generally starts with November ( winter season) in which wheat, mustard, potatoes are sown and harvested either in March and April.
A part of land is used in sugarcane production

  1. Zaid– It is a short period of cultivation in which cucumber, melon, watermelon, and other vegetables are grown between April to june.

The main reason to grow three different crops in a year is due to well developed irrigation system which made possible for farmers to irrigate large area of land effectively. Private tube wells are installed as a result, cultivation area is increased.

Class 9 Economics people as Resource Notes

Sustainability of Land
Land is a vital natural resource so its use to be looked carefully. Presently, modern farming methods associated with the continuous use of groundwater for tubewell irrigation has reduced groundwater table and affect the quality of groundwater,use of pesticides and fertilizer have also affected soil fertility that would create environmental problems. To ensure future development in agriculture, there is a need of concern for adoption of organic methods that can sustain soil fertility.
Along with it, excessive use of chemical fertilizers can also kill bacteria and other micro organisms that maintain soil fertility. At present, farmers use heavy dose of chemical fertilizers to maintain the level of production that led to soil degradation.

Labour

Labour is second important factor of production after land. In farming, small farmers who provide labour to their own field themselves and to medium and large farmersThere are three categories of people live in villages.

1. Landless labourers( have no land) – These people earn wages by doing work in fields and paid wages either in kind or money.wages vary region to region, crop to crop, one activity to another ( like sowing and harvesting). The government set the minimum wages at ₹ 300 per day ( March 2017) but not given due to heavy competition of land.

2. Small farmers( less than 2 hectres) – These farmers cultivate land with their own effort and gave labour to medium and large farmers to earn extra money as land is not enough to meet their needs.

3. Medium and large farmers ( cultivate more than more than 2 hectres) – These farmers have large area of land and hire labour from landless labourers and small farmers for cultivation which includes sowing, weeding, harvesting at different periods of time.

Capital

Modern farming methods require a great deal of capital, so it requires money which is fulfilled by small farmers either borrowing it from large farmers who have enough saving or moneylender and traders who charge a high interest that cause farmers come in distress to repay the loan. Large and medium farmers have enough saving which is due to huge surplus of production. They keep grains for their need and surplus is sold in market that fulfil the food requirements of towns and cities.

Non farm activities
In Palampur, 75℅ people are engaged in farming and rest 25℅ are involved in non-farm activities. Non-farm activities include dairy farming, small scale manufacturing, trade and transportation etc that provides livelihood to good segment of the rural society.
Dairy Farming
Dairy is a common activity in rural families who sell milk to earn some money after selling it at milk chilling centre set up generally in village or nearby towns.
Small scale manufacturing
Generally, small scale production are carried out mainly at home or in fields that is run by their own family members and sometimes hire some labour in case of extra work.
Shopkeeper
Many people in village open a small shop that sells various daily needs items like biscuits, rice, sugar, tea, oil, toothpaste etc. Shopkeeper mainly purchase all items from wholesale market which are available in nearby towns and cities and some open small shop outer part of village where people can buy things.
Transport
Transport is a mode of communication which includes jeep, Tongawallahs, rickshawallahs, tractor, truck, Bullock cart etc that carry people and goods from one place to another and in return get paid for it. Transport provides employment to a large section of people.

India Size and Location Class 9 Notes Geography Chapter 1

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Here, In this article we have provided the india size and location class 9 notes geography chapter 1 that is important for exams and other competitive exams.

India Size and Location Notes Class 9 Geography chapter 1

Class 9 Geography chapter 1 India size and location is important chapter of ncert. Every topic is covered deeply here to enhance your knowledge of this chapter.

Location

  • Lies in the northern hemisphere and eastern hemisphere
  • Latitudinal extent from South to North is 8°4’N to 37°6′
  • Longitudinal extent from west to east is 68°7’E to 97°25’E
  • The distance between North and South is 3214Km
  • The distance between east to West is 2933 km
  • Tropic of Cancer(23°30N ) divides the country into almost two equal parts
  • Tropic of cancer passes through 8 states namely Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura and Mizoram.

Size

  • India has an area of 3.28 millions square km which covers 2.4℅ landmass of the total geographical area of the world.
  • India is the seventh largest country of the world after Russia, Canada, USA, China, Brazil, Australia.
  • It has land boundary of about 15200 km and total length of the coastline including andaman & Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep is 7516.6 km.
  • It is bounded by himalayas in northwest, north and northeast and by Bay of Bengal in East, by Arabian Sea in West and by Indian Ocean in South. So, India is a peninsular country.
  • It starts to taper to South of about 22°North towards Indian Ocean.
  • The difference between the latitudinal and longitudinal extent of the mainland is almost 30°.
  • Time difference between Gujarat and Arunachal Pradesh is 2 hours.
  • Standard Meridian of India is 82°30E that lies in Mirzapur( Uttar Pradesh) which is considered as standard time for the whole country.
  • Latitudinal extent affect the duration of day and night as one moves from South to North
India and the World
  • India is centrally located between East and West Asia.
  • India is southward extension of the Asia continent
  • Trans Indian Ocean routes connect countries of Europe in West and countries of Asia in East.
  • Deccan Peninsula protrudes into the Indian Ocean that is advantageous for India to establish close contact with West Asia, Africa and Europe from western coast and with southeast and East Asia from the eastern coast.
  • Due to long coastline of India that touches Indian ocean has eminent role to got this name of ocean associated with India as Indian Ocean.
  • Opening of suez canal in 1869 has reduced the distance of 7000 Km from Europe to India.
  • India’s land routes are much older than oceanic routes as ancient travellers used to come in India through mountain passes.
  • These routes have helped in the exchange of ideas and commodities between India and other parts of the world like Ramayana, Upanishads, Indian numeral system , stories of panchtantra and decimal system.

Physical Features of India Class 9 Notes

Drainage Notes Class 9 Geography

India’s Neighbours
  • India has 28 states and 8 Union Territories.
  • According to directions, India’s neighbours
  • Pakistan and Bangladesh— Northwest
  • China, Nepal and Bhutan—– North
  • Myanmar and Bangladesh—- East
  • Sri Lanka and Maldives( Island countries) — South
  • Sri Lanka is separated from India by Palk strait and Gulf of Mannar.
  • India has two Islands- Andaman and Nicobar in Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep in Arabian Sea.
Indian States and Capital

States Capital

  1. Uttarakhand Dehradun
  2. Himachal Pradesh Shimla
  3. Haryana Chandigarh
  4. Punjab Chandigarh
  5. Rajasthan Jaipur
  6. uttar Pradesh Lucknow
  7. Gujarat Gandhinagar
  8. Madhya Pradesh Bhopal
  9. Chattisgarh Raipur
  10. Bihar Patna
  11. Jharkhand Ranchi
  12. Odisha Bhubaneswar
  13. West Bengal Kolkata
  14. Sikkim Gangtok
  15. Assam Dispur
  16. Meghalaya Shillong
  17. Arunachal Pradesh Itanagar
  18. Tripura Agartala
  19. Manipur Imphal
  20. Mizoram Aizawl
  21. Nagaland Kohima
  22. Goa Panaji
  23. Maharastra Mumbai
  24. Telangana Hyderabad
  25. Andhra Pradesh Amravati
  26. Karnataka Bengaluru
  27. Tamil Nadu Chennai
  28. kerala Thiruvananthapuram

Union Territories Capital

  1. Jammu & Kashmir Srinagar (Summer) ,Jammu(Winter)
  2. Ladakh Leh
  3. Delhi Delhi
  4. Chandigarh Chandigarh
  5. Daman Diu Dadar Nagar Haveli Daman
  6. Puducherry Pondicherry
  7. Lakshadweep Kavaratti
  8. Andaman&Nicobar Islands Port Blair
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